Rating Expatriate Leader Effectiveness in Multisource Feedback Systems: Cultural Distance and Hierarchical Effects

Human Resource Management

Volumn 56, Issue 1, 2017, Pages 151-172

  Kossek, Ellen Ernst ^a   Huang, Jason L ^b   Piszczek, Matthew M ^c   Fleenor, John W ^d   Ruderman, Marian ^e  

^a PURDUE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN OSHKOSH   (United States)

^d Center for Creative Leadership   (United States)

^e Research Horizons   (United States)

Author keywords

diversity; feedback; international HRM; performance assessment; training and development

Indexed keywords

COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS; LEADERSHIP; ORGANIZATION;

EID: 84949883913     PISSN: 00904848     EISSN: 1099050X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/hrm.21763     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C., Ng, K. Y., Templer, K. J., Tay, C., & Chandrasekar, N. A. (2007). Cultural intelligence: Its measurement and effects on cultural judgment and decision making, cultural adaptation and task performance. Management and Organization Review, 3, 335–371.
2. Arp, F., Hutchings, K., & Smith, W. (2013). Foreign executives in local organizations: An exploration of differences to other types of expatriates. Journal of Global Mobility, 1, 312–335.
3. Atwater, L. E., Ostroff, C., Yammarino, F. J., & Fleenor, J. W. (1998). Self-other agreement: Does it really matter? Personnel Psychology, 51, 577–598.
4. Atwater, L., Wang, M., Smither, J., & Fleenor, J. (2009). Are cultural characteristics associated with the relationship between self and others’ ratings of leadership? Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 876–886.
5. Autio, E., Pathak, S., & Wennberg, K. (2013). Consequences of cultural practices for entrepreneurial behaviors. Journal of International Business Studies, 44, 334–362.
6. Aycan, Z. (2008). Cross-cultural approaches to leadership. In P. B. Smith, M. F. Peterson, & D.C. Thomas (Eds.), The handbook of cross-cultural management research (pp. 219–238). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
7. Bhave, D. P., Kramer, A., & Glomb, T. M. (2010). Work-family conflict in work groups: Social information processing, support, and demographic dissimilarity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 145–158.
8. Blake, R., & Mouton, J. (1964). The managerial grid: The key to leadership excellence. Houston, TX: Gulf.
9. Bliese, P. D., & Hanges, P. J. (2004). Being both too liberal and too conservative: The perils of treating grouped data as though they were independent. Organizational Research Methods, 7, 400–417.
10. Bond, C., & O'Byrne, D. J. (2014). Challenges and conceptions of globalization: An investigation into models of global change and their relationship with business practice. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 21(1), 23–38. doi:10.1108/CCM-09-2012-0069
11. Braddy, P. W. (2007). A psychometric analysis of benchmarks. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.
12. Braddy, P. W., Gooty, J., Fleenor, J. W., & Yammarino, F. J. (2014). Leader behaviors and career derailment potential: A multi-analytic method examination of rating source and self–other agreement. Leadership Quarterly, 25(2), 373–390. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.10.001
13. Brewer, M. (1996). When contact is not enough: Social identity and intergroup cooperation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20(3), 291–303.
14. Brewster, C. (1994). Towards a “European” model of human resource management. Journal of International Business Studies, 25(1), 1–21.
15. Briscoe, D., Schuler, R., & Tarique, I. (2012). International human resource management: Policies and practices for international enterprises. New York, NY: Routledge.
16. Byrne, B. M., & Goffin, R. D. (1993). Modeling MTMM data from additive and multiplicative covariance structures: An audit of construct validity concordance. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 28, 67–96.
17. Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm. New York, NY: Academic Press.
18. Carty, H. M. (2003). Review of Benchmarks [revised]. In B. S. Plake, J. Impara, & R. A. Spies (Eds.), The fifteenth mental measurements yearbook (pp. 123–124). Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.
19. Center for Creative Leadership. (2004). Benchmarks facilitators’ manual. Greensboro, NC: Author.
20. Cerdin, J. L., & Brewster, C. (2014). Talent management and expatriation: Bridging two streams of research and practice. Journal of World Business, 49(2), 245–252. doi:10.1016/j.jwb.2013.11.008
21. Chang, Y.-Y., Gong, Y., & Peng, M. W. (2012). Expatriate knowledge transfer, subsidiary absorptive capacity, and subsidiary performance. Academy of Management Journal, 55(4), 927–948. doi:10.5465/amj.2010.0985
22. Chao, G., & Moon, H. (2005). The cultural mosaic: A meta-theory for understanding the complexity of culture. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 1128–1140.
23. Chartered Institute of Personnel Development. (2013). Talent analytics and big data: The challenge for HR. Retrieved from http://www.oracle.com/us/products/applications/human-capital-management/talent-analytics-and-big-data-2063584.pdf
24. Chatman, J., & Spataro, S. (2005). Using self-categorization theory to understand relational demography–based variations in people's responsiveness to organizational culture. Academy of Management Journal, 48(2), 321–331.
25. Chen, N., & Tjosvold, D. (2007). Guanxi and leader member relationships between American managers and Chinese employees: Open-minded dialogue as mediator. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 24, 171–189.
26. Colakoglu, S., & Caligiuri, P. (2008). Cultural distance, expatriate staffing and subsidiary performance: The case of US subsidiaries of multinational corporations. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19, 223–239.
27. Conway, J. M., & Huffcutt, A. I. (1997). Psychometric properties of multisource performance ratings: A meta-analysis of subordinate, supervisor, peer, and self-ratings. Human Performance, 10, 331–360.
28. Cooke, F. L., & Xiao, Y. (2014). Gender roles and organizational HR practices: The case of women's careers in accountancy and consultancy firms in China. Human Resource Management, 53(1), 23–44.
29. Crowne, K. A. (2013). Cultural exposure, emotional intelligence, and cultural intelligence: An exploratory study. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 13(1), 5–22. doi:10.1177/1470595812452633
30. Dalton, M., Ernst, C., Deal, J., & Leslie, J. (2002). Success for the new global manager: How to work across distances, countries, and cultures. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
31. Dorfman, P., & Howell, J. (1988). Dimensions of national culture and effective leadership patterns: Hofstede revisited. In R. N. Farmer & E. G. McGoun (Eds.), Advances in international comparative management (Vol. 3, pp. 127–150). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
32. Dragoni, L., & McAlpine, K. (2012). Leading the business: The criticality of global leaders’ cognitive complexity in setting strategic directions. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 5(2): 237–240.
33. Dragoni, L., Oh, I. S., Tesluk, P. E., Moore, O. A., VanKatwyk, P., & Hazucha, J. (2014). Developing leaders’ strategic thinking through global work experience: The moderating role of cultural distance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(5), 867.
34. Enders, C.K., & Tofighi, D. (2007). Centering predictor variables in cross-sectional multilevel models: A new look at an old issue. Psychological Methods, 12: 121–138.
35. Ensari, N. & Murphy, S. (2003). Cross-cultural variation in perceptions and attributions of charisma to the leader. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 92, 52–66.
36. Fang, Y., Jiang, G.-L. F., Makino, S., & Beamish, P. W. (2010). Multinational firm knowledge, use of expatriates, and foreign subsidiary performance. Journal of Management Studies, 47(1), 27–54. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2009.00850.x
37. Fee, A., Gray, S. J., & Lu, S. (2013). Developing cognitive complexity from the expatriate experience: Evidence from a longitudinal field study. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 13(3), 299–318. doi:10.1177/1470595813484310
38. Fee, A., McGrath-Champ, S., & Liu, H. (2013). Human resources and expatriate evacuation: A conceptual model. Journal of Global Mobility, 1(3), 246–263.
39. Flynn, F. J., Chatman, J. A., & Spataro, S. E. (2001). Getting to know you: The influence of personality on impressions and performance of demographically different people in organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46, 414–442.
40. Franke, G. R., & Richey, R. G. (2010). Improving generalizations from multi-country comparisons in international business research. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(8), 1275–1293. doi:10.1057/jibs.2010.21
41. Fu, P., Kennedy, J., Tata, J., Yukl, G., Bond, M., Peng, T.-K., … Cheosakul, A. (2004). The impact of societal cultural values and individual social beliefs on the perceived competencies of managerial influence strategies: A meso approach. International Journal of Business Studies, 35, 284–305.
42. Gardner, J. (1990). On leadership. New York, NY: Free Press.
43. Gelfand, M., Nishii, L., & Raver, J. (2006). On the nature and importance of cultural tightness and looseness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1225–1244.
44. Goldberg, C., Riordan, C., & Schaffer, B. (2010). Does social identity theory underlie relational demography? A test of the moderating effects of uncertainty reduction and status enhancement on similarity effects. Human Relations, 63, 903–926.
45. Harrison, D.A., & Klein, K.J. (2007). What's the difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety, or disparity in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 32, 1199–1228.
46. Harrison, D. A., Price K., & Bell, M. (1998). Beyond relational demography: Time and the effects of surface- and deep level diversity on work group cohesion. Academy of Management Journal, 41, 96–107.
47. Hemmasi, M., & Downes, M. (2012). Cultural distance and expatriate adjustment: An empirical assessment of competing hypotheses. Journal of International Management Studies, 12(2), 43.
48. Hemmasi, M., & Downes, M. (2013). Cultural distance and expatriate adjustment revisited. Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of Expatriate Management Research, 1(1), 72–91. doi:10.1108/JGM-09-2012-0010
49. Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
50. Hogan, R., & Shelton, D. (1998). A socioanalytic perspective on job performance. Human Performance, 11, 129–144.
51. Hollander, E. (1954). Buddy ratings: Military research and industrial implications. Personnel Psychology, 7(3), 385–393.
52. Holtbrügge, D., Weldon, A., & Rogers, H. (2012). Cultural determinants of email communication styles. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 13(1), 89–110. doi:10.1177/1470595812452638
53. House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V., & GLOBE Associates. (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA; Sage.
54. Huang, J. L., Ryan, A. M., Zabel, K. L., & Palmer, A. (2014). Personality and adaptive performance at work: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99, 162–179.
55. Inceoglu, I., & Bartram, D. (2012). Global leadership: The myth of multicultural competency. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 5, 216–247.
56. Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., de Luque, M. S., & House, R. J. (2006). In the eye of the beholder: Cross cultural lessons in leadership from project GLOBE. Academy of Management Perspectives, 20, 67–90.
57. Judge, T. A., Piccolo, R. F., & Ilies, R. (2004). The forgotten ones? The validity of consideration and initiating structure in leadership research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(1), 36–51.
58. Jundt, D. K., Shoss, M., & Huang, J. L. (2014). Individual adaptive performance in organizations: A review. Journal of Organizational Behavior. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1002/job.1955
59. Kenny, D. A., & Judd, C. M. (1986). Consequences of violating the independence assumption in analysis of variance. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 422–431.
60. Kim, K., Kirkman, B., & Chen, G. (2008). Cultural intelligence and international assignment competencies: A conceptual model and preliminary findings. In S. Ang & L. Van Dyne (Eds.), Handbook of cultural intelligence: Theory, measurement and applications (pp. 71–90). Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.
61. Kirkman, B. L., Chen, G., Farh, J. L., Chen, Z. X., & Lowe, K. B. (2009). Individual power distance orientation and follower reactions to transformational leaders: A cross-level, cross-cultural examination. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 744–764.
62. Kogut, B., & Singh, H. (1988). The effect of national culture on the choice of entry. Journal of International Business Studies, 19, 411–432.
63. Lakshman, C. (2013). Biculturalism and attributional complexity: Cross-cultural leadership effectiveness. Journal of International Business Studies, 44(9), 922–940.
64. Lauring, J. (2008). Rethinking social identity theory in international encounters: Language use as a negotiated object for identity making. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, (8): 343–361.
65. Lauring, J. (2013). International diversity management: Global ideals and local responses. British Journal of Management, 24(2), 211–224. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00798.x
66. LeBreton, J. M., Burgess, J. R. D., Kaiser, R. B., Atchley, E. K., & James, L. R. (2003). The restriction of variance hypothesis and inter-rater reliability and agreement: Are ratings from multiple sources really dissimilar? Organizational Research Methods, 6, 80–128.
67. Lee, D. (2013). Beliefs on “avoidant cultures” in two French multinational corporations. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 20(1), 20–38. doi:10.1108/13527601311296238
68. Leslie, J. B., & Fleenor, J. W. (1998). Feedback to managers: A review and comparison of multi-rater instruments for management development. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.
69. Leung, K. (1987). Some determinants of reactions to procedural models for conflict resolution: A cross-national study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 898–908.
70. Leung, K., Ang, S., & Tan, M. L. (2014). Intercultural competence. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(1), 489–519. doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091229
71. Levy, O., Peiperl, M., & Bouquet, C. (2013). Transnational social capital: A conceptualization and research instrument. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 13(3), 319–338. doi:10.1177/1470595813485940
72. Littrell, R. F. (2013). Explicit leader behaviour: A review of literature, theory development, and research project results. Journal of Management Development, 32(6), 567–605. doi:10.1108/JMD-04-2013-0053
73. Liu, M., & Huang, J. L. (2015). Cross-cultural adjustment to the United States: The role of contextualized extraversion change. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1650. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01650
74. Lombardo, M., & McCauley, C. (1994). Benchmarks: A manual and trainer's guide. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.
75. Lombardo, M.M., McCauley, C.D., McDonald-Mann, D., & Leslie, J.B. (1999). Benchmarks: Developmental reference points. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership.
76. Luthans, F., & Doh, J. P. (2012). International management. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin.
77. Makela K., Bjorkman, I., & Ehrnrooth, M. (2009). MNC subsidiary staffing architecture: Building human and social capital within the organization. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 20, 1273–1290.
78. Morosini, P., Shane, S., & Singh, H. (1998). National cultural distance and cross-border acquisition performance. Journal of International Business Studies, 29, 137–158.
79. Morrison, A. M., White, R. P., & Van Velsor, E. (1987). Breaking the glass ceiling: Can women reach the top of America's largest corporations? Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
80. Munusamy, V. P., Ruderman, M. N., & Eckert, R. H. (2010). Leader development and social identity. In E. Van Velsor, C. D. McCauley, & M. N. Ruderman (Eds.), The Center for Creative Leadership handbook of leadership development (3rd ed., pp. 147–175). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
81. Murphy, K. R., Cleveland, J. N., Skattebo, A. L., & Kinney, T. B. (2004). Raters who pursue different goals give different ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 158–164. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.1.158
82. Mustafa, G., & Lines, R. (2013). The triple role of values in culturally adapted leadership styles. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 13(1), 23–46. doi:10.1177/1470595812452c636
83. Ng, K.-Y., Koh, C., Ang, S., Kennedy, J. C., & Chan, K.-Y. (2011). Rating leniency and halo in multisource feedback ratings: Testing cultural assumptions of power distance and individualism-collectivism. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(5), 1033–1044,
84. Ott-Holland, C., Huang, J. L., Ryan, A. M., Elizondo, F., & Wadlington, P. L. (2014). The effects of culture and gender on perceived self-other similarity in personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 53, 13–21. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2014.07.010
85. Pelled, L. H., & Xin, K. R. (2000). Relational demography and relationship quality in two cultures. Organization Studies, 21, 1077–1094.
86. Posner, B. Z. (2013). It's how leaders behave that matters, not where they are from. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 34(6), 573–587. doi:10.1108/LODJ-11-2011-0115
87. Riordan, C.M., & Shore, L.M. (1997). Demographic diversity and employee attitudes: An empirical examination of relational demography within work units. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(3), 342–358. doi:10.1037//0021-9010.82.3.342
88. Riordan, C. M., & Wayne, J. H. (2008). A review and examination of demographic similarity measures used to assess relational demography within groups. Organizational Research Methods, 11, 562–592.
89. Scullen, S., Mount, M., & Judge, T. (2003). Evidence of the construct validity of developmental ratings of managerial performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 50–66.
90. Selmer, J. (2002). Practice makes perfect? International experience and expatriate adjustment. MIR: Management International Review, 42(1), 71–87.
91. Selmer, J., Chiu, R. K., & Shenkar, O. (2007). Cultural distance asymmetry in expatriate adjustment. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 14(2), 150–160.
92. Selmer, J., & Lauring, J. (2009). Cultural similarity and adjustment of expatriate academics. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33, 429–436.
93. Shaffer, M. A., Harrison, D. A., Gilley, M. K., & Luk, D. (2001). Struggling for balance amid turbulence: Work-family conflict on international assignments. Journal of Management, 27, 99–121.
94. Shaffer, M., Kraimer, M., Chen, Y., Bolino, M. (2012). Choices, challenges, and career consequences of global work experiences: A review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 38, 1282–1327.
95. Shenkar, O. (2001). Cultural distance revisited: Towards a more rigorous conceptualization and measurement of cultural differences. Journal of International Business Studies, 32, 519–535.
96. Shenkar, O., Luo, Y., & Yeheskel, O. (2008). From “distance” to “friction”: Substituting metaphors and redirecting intercultural research. Academy of Management Review, 33, 905–923.
97. Shrout, P. E., & Fleiss, J. L. (1979). Intraclass correlations: Uses in assessing rater reliability. Psychological Bulletin, 2, 420–428.
98. Spangler, M. (2003). Review of BENCHMARKS® [revised]. In B. S. Plake, J. Impara, & R. A. Spies (Eds.), The fifteenth mental measurements yearbook (pp. 124–126). Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.
99. Spence, J. R., & Keeping, L. M. (2010). The impact of non-performance information on ratings of job performance: A policy-capturing approach. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 587–608. doi:10.1002/job.64
100. Stahl, G. K., & Tung, R. (2013, August 9–13). Negative biases in the study of culture in international business: The need for positive organizational scholarship. Academy of Management Conference, Orlando, FL.
101. Story, J. S. P., Barbuto, J. E., Jr., Luthans, F., & Bovaird, J. A. (2014). Meeting the challenges of effective international HRM: Analysis of the antecedents of global mindset. Human Resource Management, 53(1), 131–155. doi:10.1002/hrm
102. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
103. Takeuchi, R. (2010). Critical review of expatriate adjustment research through a multiple stakeholder view: Progress, emerging trends, and prospects. Journal of Management, 36, 1040–1064.
104. Takeuchi, R., Wang, M., & Marinova, S. V. (2005). Antecedents and consequences of psychological workplace strain during expatriation: A cross-sectional and longitudinal investigation. Personnel Psychology, 58, 925–948.
105. Tarique, I., & Schuler, R. S. (2008). Emerging issues and challenges in global staffing: A North American perspective. International Journal of Human Resource Management, (19)8, 1397–1415.
106. Tsui, A., Eagan, T., & O’ Reilly, C. (1992). Being different: Relational demography and organizational attachment. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37(4), 549–579.
107. Tsui, A., & Gutek, B. (1999). Demographic differences in organizations: Current research and future directions. New York, NY: Lexington.
108. Tsui, A., & O'Reilly, C. (1989). Beyond simple demographic effects: The importance of relational demography in supervisor-subordinate dyads. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 402–423.
109. Tsui, A. S., & Ashford, S. J. (1994). Adaptive self-regulation: A process view of managerial effectiveness. Journal of Management, 20(1), 93–121.
110. Turner, J., Hogg, M., Oakes, P., Reicher, S., & Wetherell, M. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford, England: Basic Blackwell.
111. Tung, R. L., & Verbeke, A. (2010). Beyond Hofstede and GLOBE: Improving the quality of cross-cultural research. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(8), 1259–1274. doi:10.1057/jibs.2010.41
112. Van Vianen, A. E. M., Pater, I. E., Kristof-Brown, A. L., & Johnson, E. C. (2004). Fitting in: Surface- and deep-level cultural differences and expatriates’ adjustment. Academy of Management Journal, 47, 697–709.
113. Vromans, P., van Engen, M., & Mol, S. (2013). Presumed cultural similarity paradox. Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of Expatriate Management Research, 1(2), 219–238. doi:10.1108/JGM-02-2013-0011
114. Wagner, W. G., Pfeffer, J., & O'Reilly, C. A. (1984). Organizational demography and turnover in top management groups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29, 74–92.
115. Yao, C. (2013). The perceived value of Chinese expatriates’ career capital: A symbolic capital perspective. Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of Expatriate Management Research, 1(2), 187–218. doi:10.1108/JGM-09-2012-0001
116. Yang, J., Mossholder, K., & Peng, T. (2007). Procedural justice climate and group power distance: An examination of cross-level interaction effects. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 681–691.
117. Zaheer, S., Schomaker, M. S., & Nachum, L. (2012). Distance without direction: Restoring credibility to a much-loved construct. Journal of International Business Studies, 43(1), 18–27. doi:10.1057/jibs.2011.43
118. Zander, L., & Romani, L. (2004). When nationality matters: A study of departmental, hierarchical, professional, gender and age-based employee groupings’ leadership preferences across 15 countries. International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, 4, 291–315.
119. Zedeck, S. (1995). Review of BENCHMARKS®. In J. C. Conoley & J. C. Impara (Eds.), The twelfth mental measurements yearbook (pp. 128–129). Lincoln, NE: Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.
120. Zhang, Y. (2012). Expatriate development for cross-cultural adjustment: Effects of cultural distance and cultural intelligence. Human Resource Development Review, 12(2), 177–199. doi:10.1177/1534484312461637