Prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination: Theoretical and empirical overview

The SAGE Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 3-28

  Dovidio, John F ^a   Hewstone, Miles ^b   Glick, Peter ^c   Esses, Victoria M ^d  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^c Lawrence University in Appleton   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84949809177     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4135/9781446200919.n1     Document Type: Chapter

References (165)

1. Abrams, D. Focus of attention in minimal intergroup discrimination. British Journal of Social Psychology, 24,65-74. (1985).
2. Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D. J., &Sanford, R. N.(1950). The Authoritarian Personality. New York:Harper.
3. Allport, G. W.(1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA:Addison-Wesley.
4. Altemeyer, B.(1996). The Authoritarian Specter. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press.
5. Altemeyer, B.(1998). The other authoritarian personality. In M. P.Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 30, pp. 47-92).San Diego:Academic Press.
6. Amodio, D. M., &Devine, P. G. Stereotyping and evaluation in implicit race prejudice: Evidence for independent constructs and unique effects on behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91,652-661. (2006).
7. Amodio, D.M. Devine, P.G., &Harmon-Jones, E. A dynamic model of guilt: Implications for motivation and self-regulation in the context of prejudice. Psychological Science, 18,524-530. (2007).
8. Baldus, D., Woodworth, G., &Pulaski, C.(1990). Equal Justice and the Death Penalty: A Legal and Empirical Analysis. Boston, MA:Northeastern University Press.
9. Bell, D. W., &Esses, V. M. Ambivalence and response amplification toward native peoples. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27,1063-1084. (1997).
10. Ben-Ari, R., & Rich, Y. (Eds) (1997). Enhancing Education in Heterogeneous Schools: Theory and Application. Ramat-Gun, Israel:Bar-Illan University Press.
11. Binder, J. Zagefka, H. Brown, R. Funke, F. Kessler, T. Mummendey, A., et al. Does contact reduce prejudice or does prejudice reduce contact? A longitudinal test of the contact hypothesis among majority and minority groups in three European countries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96,843-856. (2009).
12. Blanchard, F. A. Adelman, L., &Cook, S. W. Effect of group success upon interpersonal attraction in cooperating interracial groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31,1021-1030. (1975).
13. Blauner, R.(1972). Race Oppression in America. New York:Harper & Row.
14. Blumer, H. Race prejudice as a sense of group position. Pacific Sociological Review, 1,3-7. (1958a).
15. Blumer, H. Recent research on race relations in the United States of America. International Social Science Bulletin, 10,403-477. (1958b).
16. Blumer, H.(1965a). Industrialization and race relations. In G.Hunter (Ed.), Industrialization and Race Relations: A Symposium (pp. 228-229).New York:Oxford University Press.
17. Blumer, H.(1965b). The future of the Color Line. In J. C.McKinney & E. T.Thompson (Eds), The South in Continuity and Change (pp. 322-336).Durham, NC:Seeman.
18. Bobo, L.(1988). Group conflict, prejudice, and the paradox of contemporary racial attitudes. In P. A.Katz & D. A.Taylor (Eds), Eliminating Racism: Profiles in Controversy (pp. 85-114).New York:Plenum.
19. Bobo, L. D. Prejudice as group position: Microfoundations of a sociological approach to racism and race relations. Journal of Social Issues, 55,445-472. (1999).
20. Bobo, L., &Huchings, V. L. Perceptions of racial group competition: Extending Blumer's theory of group position to a multiracial context. American Sociological Review, 61,951-972. (1996).
21. Bobo, L., &Tuan, M.(2006). Prejudice in Politics: Group Position, Public Opinion and the Wisconsin Treaty Rights Dispute. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press.
22. Bonacich, E. A theory of ethnic antagonism. American Sociological Review, 77,547-559. (1972).
23. Bonacich, E. A theory of middleman minorities. American Sociological Review, 38,583-594. (1973).
24. Brewer, M. B. Ingroup bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive motivational analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 86,307-324. (1979).
25. Brewer, M. B. The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love or outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55,429-444. (1999).
26. Brewer, M. B.(2001). Ingroup identification and intergroup conflict: When does ingroup love become outgroup hate? In R.E.Ashmore & L.Jussim (Eds), Social Identity, Intergroup Conflict, and Conflict Reduction. Rutgers Series on Self and Social Identity, (Vol. 3., pp. 17-41).London, England:Oxford University Press.
27. Brewer, M. B., &Brown, R. J.(1998). Intergroup relations. In D. T.Gilbert, S. T.Fiske & G.Lindzey (Eds), Handbook of Social Psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 554-594).New York:McGraw Hill.
28. Brewer, M. B., &Miller, N.(1984). Beyond the contact hypothesis: Theoretical perspectives on desegregation. In N.Miller & M. B.Brewer (Eds), Groups in Contact: The Psychology of Desegregation (pp. 281-302).Orlando FL:Academic Press.
29. Brief, A. P. Dietz, J. Cohen, R. R. Pugh, S. D., &Vaslow, J. B. Just doing business: Modern racism and obedience to authority as explanations for employment discrimination. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 81,72-97. (2000).
30. Briggs, X. de S. On half-blind men and elephants: Understanding greater ethnic diversity and responding to good-enough evidence. Housing Policy Debate, 19,218-229. (2008).
31. Brown, R., &Hewstone, M.(2005). An integrative theory of intergroup contact. In M. P.Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 37, pp. 255-343).San Diego, CA:Academic Press.
32. Brown, R. J., &Turner, J. C.(1981). Interpersonal and intergroup behavior. In J. C.Turner & H.Giles (Eds.), Intergroup Behavior (pp. 33-64).Chicago, IL:University of Chicago Press.
33. Campbell, D. T.(1965). Ethnocentric and other altruistic motives. In D.Levine (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 13, pp. 283-311).Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press.
34. Correll, J. Park, B., &Smith, J. A. Colorblind and multicultural prejudice reduction strategies in high-conflict situations. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 11,471-491. (2008).
35. Cosmides, L. Tooby, J., &Kurzban, R. Perceptions of race. Trends in Cognitive Science, 7,173-179. (2003).
36. Crocker, J., &Major, B. Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review. 96608-630. (1989).
37. Dawkins, C. Reflections on diversity and social capital: A critique of Robert Putnam's. 'E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and community in the twenty-first century the 2006 Johan Skytte prize lecture'. Housing Policy Debate, 19,208-217. (2008).
38. Dollard, J., Doob, L. W., Miller, N. Mowrer, O. H., &Sears, R. R.(1939). Frustration and Aggression. New Haven, CT:Yale University Press.
39. Doosje, B. Branscombe, N. R. Spears, R., &Manstead, A. S. R. Guilty by association: When one's group has a negative history. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75,872-886. (1998).
40. Dovidio, J. F. On the nature of contemporary prejudice: The third wave. Journal of Social Issues, 57,829-849. (2001).
41. Dovidio, J. F., &Fazio, R. H.(1992). New technologies for the direct and indirect assessment of attitudes. In J.Tanur (Ed.), Questions About Survey Questions: Meaning, Memory, Attitudes, and Social Interaction (pp. 204-237).New York:Russell Sage Foundation.
42. Dovidio, J. F., &Gaertner, S. L.(2004). Aversive racism. In M. P.Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 36, pp. 1-51).San Diego, CA:Academic Press.
43. Dovidio, J. F. Gaertner, S. L., &Kawakami, K. The Contact Hypothesis: The past, present, and the future. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6,5-21. (2003).
44. Dovidio, J. F. Gaertner, S. L. Validzic, A. Matoka, K. Johnson, B., &Frazier, S. Extending the benefits of re-categorization: Evaluations, self-disclosure and helping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33,401-420. (1997).
45. Duckitt, J. Psychology and prejudice: A historical analysis and integrative framework. American Psychologist, 47,1182-1193. (1992).
46. Eagly, A. H., &Diekman, A. B.(2005). What is the problem? Prejudice as an attitude-in-context. In J. F.Dovidio, P.Glick, & L. A.Rudman (Eds), On the Nature of Prejudice: Fifty Years After Allport (pp. 19-35).Malden, MA:Blackwell.
47. Esses, V. M., Dovidio, J. F., & Dion, K. L. (Eds) (2001b). Immigrants and immigration. Journal of Social Issues, 57.
48. Esses, V. M. Dovidio, J. F. Jackson, L. M., &Armstrong, T. M. The immigration dilemma: The role of perceived group competition, ethnic prejudice, and national identity. Journal of Social Issue, 57,389-412. (2001a).
49. Esses, V. M., Haddock, G., &Zanna, M.(1993). Values, stereotypes, and emotions as determinants of intergroup attitudes. In D. M.Mackie, & D. L.Hamilton (Eds), Affect, Cognition and Stereotyping: Interactive Processes in Group Perception (pp. 137-166).San Diego, CA:Academic Press.
50. Esses, V. M., Jackson, L. M., Dovidio, J. F., &Hodson, G.(2005). Instrumental relations among groups: Group competition, conflict, and prejudice. In J. F.Dovidio, P.Glick, & L. A.Rudman (Eds), On the Nature of Prejudice: Fifty Years After Allport (pp. 227-243).Malden, MA:Blackwell.
51. Esses, V. M., Semenya, A. H., Stelzl, M., Dovidio, J. F., &Hodson, G.(2006). Maximizing social psychological contributions to addressing social issues: The benefits of interdisciplinary perspectives. In P. A. M.van Lange (Ed.), Bridging Social Psychology: Benefits of Transdisciplinary Approaches (pp. 403-408).Mahwah, NJ:Erlbaum.
52. Fazio, R. H. Jackson, J. R. Dunton, B. C., &Williams, C. J. Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69,1013-1027. (1995).
53. Fazio, R. H., &Olson, M. A. Implicit measures in social cognition research: Their meaning and uses. Annual Review of Psychology, 54,297-327. (2003).
54. Feagin, J. R.(2006). Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression. New York:Routledge.
55. Fein, S., &Spencer, S. J. Prejudice as self-image maintenance: Affirming the self through derogating others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73,31-44. (1997).
56. Fiske, S. T.(1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In D.T.Gilbert, S.T.Fiske, & G.Lindzey (Eds), The Handbook of Social Psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 357-411).New York:McGraw-Hill.
57. Fiske, S. T. Cuddy, A. J. C. Glick, P., &Xu, J. A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82,878-902. (2002).
58. Fiske, S. T., &Ruscher, J. B.(1993). Negative interdependence and prejudice: Whence the affect?, In D. M.Mackie, & D. L.Hamilton (Eds), Affect, Cognition, and Stereotyping: Interactive Processes in Group Perception (pp. 239-268).New York:Academic Press.
59. Fiske, S. T. &Taylor, S. E.(1984). Social Cognition. New York:Random House.
60. Ford, T. E., &Stangor, C. The role of diagnosticity in stereotype formation: Perceiving group means and variances. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63,356-367. (1992).
61. Gabriel, U. Banse, R., &Hug, T. Predicting public and private helping behaviour by implicit attitudes and motivation to control prejudiced reactions. British Journal of Social Psychology, 46,365-382. (2007).
62. Gaertner, S. L., &Dovidio, J. F.(1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. F.Dovidio, & S. L.Gaertner (Eds), Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism (pp. 61-89).Orlando, FL:Academic Press.
63. Gaertner, S. L. &Dovidio, J. F.(2000). Reducing Intergroup Bias: The Common Ingroup Identity Model. Philadelphia, PA:Psychology Press.
64. Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Banker, B. S., Rust, M. C., Nier, J. A., &Ward, C. M.(1997). Does pro-whiteness necessarily mean anti-blackness? In M.Fine, L.Powell, L.Weis, & M.Wong (Eds), Off White (pp. 167-178).New York:Routledge.
65. Gilbert, G. M. Stereotype persistence and change among college students. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46,245-254. (1951).
66. Glick, P.(2005). Choice of scapegoats. In J. F.Dovidio, P.Glick, & L. A.Rudman (Eds), On the Nature of Prejudice: Fifty Years After Allport (pp. 244-261).Malden, MA:Blackwell.
67. Glick, P., &Fiske, S. T. The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70,491-512. (1996).
68. Goffman, E.(1963). Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall.
69. Green, D. P. Glaser, J., &Rich, A. From lynching to gay bashing: The elusive connection between economic conditions and hate crime. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75,82-92. (1998).
70. Greenwald, A. G., &Banaji, M. Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102,4-27. (1995).
71. Greenwald, A. G. McGhee, D., &Schwartz, J. Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74,1464-1480. (1998).
72. Hagendoorn, L., & Nekuee, S. (Eds) (1999). Education and Racism: A Cross-National Inventory of Positive Effects of Education on Ethnic Tolerance. Aldershot, UK:Ashgate.
73. Hamilton, D. L.(1981). Stereotyping and intergroup behavior: Some thoughts on the cognitive approach. In D. L.Hamilton (Ed.), Cognitive Processes in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior (pp. 333-353).Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum.
74. Hamilton, D. L., &Trolier, T. K.(1986). Stereotypes and stereotyping: An overview of the cognitive approach. In J. F.Dovidio, & S.L.Gaertner (Eds), Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism (pp. 127-163).New York:Academic Press.
75. Haslam, S. A., &Dovidio, J. F.(2010). Prejudice. In J. M.Levine, & M. A.Hogg, (Eds), Encyclopedia of Group Processes and Intergroup Relations (Vol. 2, pp. 655-660).Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage. doi:10.4135/9781412972017 http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412972017.
76. Hewstone, M. The "ultimate attribution error"? A review of the literature on intergroup attributions. European Journal of Social Psychology, 20,311-335. (1990).
77. Hewstone, M. Rubin, M., &Willis, H. Intergroup bias, Annual Review of Psychology, 53,575-604. (2002).
78. Hewstone, M., Tausch, N., Voci, A., Kenworthy, J., Hughes, J., &Cairns, E.(2008). Why neighbors kill: Prior intergroup contact and killing of ethnic outgroup neighbors. In V. M.Esses, & R. A.Vernon (Eds), Explaining the Breakdown of Ethnic Relations: Why Neighbors Kill (pp. 61-91).Malden, MA:Blackwell.
79. Hewstone, M., &Ward, C. Ethnocentrism and causal attribution in Southeast Asia. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48,614-623. (1985).
80. Hilton, J. L., &von Hippel, W. Stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology, 47,237-271. (1996).
81. Hoffman, C., &Hurst, N. Gender stereotypes: Perception or rationalization? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58,197-208. (1990).
82. Hogg, M. A., &Hains, S. C. Intergroup relations and group solidarity: Effects of group identification and social beliefs on depersonalized attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70,295-309. (1996).
83. Hooghe, M. Reeskens, T. Stolle, D. &Trappers, A. Ethnic diversity and generalized trust in Europe: A cross-national multilevel study. Comparative Political Studies, 42,198-223. (2009).
84. HovlandC.I., &Sears, R. R. Minor studies of aggression: VI. Correlation of lynchings with economic indices. Journal of Psychology, 9,301-310. (1940).
85. Howard, J. M. Rothbart, M. Social categorization for in-group and out-group behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38,301-310. (1980).
86. Hunsberger, B. &Jackson, L. M. Religion, meaning, and prejudice. Journal of Social Issues, 61,807-826. (2005).
87. Insko, C. A. Schopler, J. Gaertner, L. Wildschut, T. Kozar, R. Pinter, B., et al. Inter individual-intergroup discontinuity reduction through the anticipation of future interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80,95-111. (2001).
88. Institute of Medicine (2003). Unequal treatment: Confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care. (B.D.Smedley, A.Y.Stith, & A.R.Nelson, Eds). Washington, DC:National Academies Press.
89. Johnson, J. D., &Lecci, L. Assessing anti-White attitudes and predicting perceived racism: The Johnson-Lecci scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29,299-312. (2003).
90. Johnson, J. D. Trawalter, S., &Dovidio, J. F. Converging interracial consequences of violent rap music on stereotypical attributions of Blacks. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36,233-251. (2000).
91. Jones, J. M.(1972). Prejudice and Racism. Reading, MA:Addison-Wesley.
92. Jost, J. T. &Banaji, M. R. The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33,1-27. (1994).
93. Jost, J. T. Banaji, M., &Nosek, B. A. A decade of System Justification Theory: Accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo. Political Psychology, 25,881-919. (2004).
94. Jost, J. T. Glaser, J. Kruglanski, A. W., &Sulloway, F. Political conservatism as motivated social cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 129,339-375. (2003).
95. Judd, C. M., &Park, B. Definition and assessment of accuracy in social stereotypes. Psychological Review, 100,109-128. (1993).
96. Kanter, R. M. Some effects of proportions on group life: Skewed sex ratios and responses to token women. American Journal of Sociology, 82,965-990. (1977a).
97. Kanter, R. M.(1977b). Men and Women of the Corporation. New York:Basic Books.
98. Karpinski, A., &Hilton, J. L. Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81,774-788. (2001).
99. Katz, D., &Braly, K. W. Racial stereotypes of 100 college students. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28,280-290. (1933).
100. Katz, I.(1981). Stigma: A Social-Psychological Perspective. Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum.
101. Katz, I., Wackenhut, J., &Hass, R. G.(1986). Racial ambivalence, value duality, and behavior. In J. F.Dovidio, S. L.Gaertner (Eds), Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism (pp. 35-59).Orlando, FL:Academic Press.
102. Kawakami, K. Dovidio, J. F., &van Kamp, S. The impact of counterstereotypic training and related correction processes on the application of stereotypes. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 10,141-158. (2007).
103. Kovel, J.(1970). White Racism: A Psychohistory. New York:Pantheon.
104. Lancee, B., &Dronkers, J.(2008, May). Ethnic diversity in neighbourhoods and individual trust of immigrants and natives: A replication of Putnam (2007) in a West European country. Paper presented at the International conference on theoretical perspectives on social cohesion and social capital, Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium for Science and the Arts. Brussels, Belgium.
105. Levin, S. van Laar, C., &Sidanius, J. The effects of ingroup and outgroup friendships on ethnic attitudes in college: A longitudinal study. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6,76-92. (2003).
106. Lippmann, W.(1922). Public Opinion. New York:Harcourt, Brace.
107. Lord, C. G., &Saenz, D. S. Memory deficits and memory surfeits: Differential cognitive consequences of tokenism for tokens and observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49,918-926. (1985).
108. Mackie, D. M. Devos, T., &Smith, E. R. Intergroup emotions: Explaining offensive action tendencies in an intergroup context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79,602-616. (2000).
109. Mackie, D. M., &Smith, E. R. Intergroup relations: Insights from a theoretically integrative approach. Psychological Review, 105,499-529. (1998).
110. McConahay, J. B.(1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the modern racism scale. In J. F.Dovidio, & S. L.Gaertner (Eds), Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism (pp. 91-125).Orlando, FL:Academic Press.
111. Miller, C. T., &Myers, A. M.(1998). Compensating for prejudice: How heavyweight people (and others) control outcomes despite prejudice. In J. K.Swim, & C.Stangor (Eds), Prejudice: The Target's Perspective. San Diego, CA:Academic Press.
112. Miller, N. Personalization and the promise of Contact Theory. Journal of Social Issues, 58,387-410. (2002).
113. Monteith, M. J., &Spicer, C. V. Contents and correlates of Whites" and Blacks" racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36,125-154. (2000).
114. Mummendey, A., &Otten, S.(2001). Aversive discrimination. In RBrown, & S. L.Gaertner (Eds), Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Intergroup Processes (pp. 112-132).Malden, MA:Blackwell.
115. Nickerson, A. M., &Louis, W. R. Nationality versus humanity? Personality, identity, and norms in relation to attitudes toward asylum seekers. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38,796-817. (2008).
116. Oakes, P. J., &Turner, J. C.(1990). Is limited information processing the cause of social stereotyping? In W.Stroebe, & M.Hewstone (Eds). European Review of Social Psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 111-125).Chichester, UK:Wiley.
117. Onorato, R. S., &Turner, J. C.(2001). The "I," "me," and the "us": The psychological group and self-concept maintenance and change. In C.Sedikides, & M. B.Brewer (Eds). Individual Self, Relational Self, Collective Self (pp. 147-170).Philadelphia, PA:Psychology Press.
118. Otten, S., &Moskowitz, G. B. Evidence for implicit evaluative in-group bias: Affect-based spontaneous trait inference in a minimal group paradigm. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36,77-89. (2000).
119. Otten, S., &Mummendey, A.(2000). Valence-dependent probability of ingroup-favoritism between minimal groups: An integrative view on the positive-negative asymmetry in social discrimination. In D.Capozza, & R.Brown (Eds). Social Identity Processes (pp. 33-48).London:Sage. doi:10.4135/9781446218617 http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781446218617.
120. Paolini, S. Hewstone, M. Cairns, E., &Voci, A. Effects of direct and indirect cross-group friendships on judgments of Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland: The mediating role of an anxiety-reduction mechanism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30,770-786. (2004).
121. Park, B., &Rothbart, M. Perception of out-group homogeneity and levels of social categorization: Memory for the subordinate attributes of in-group and out-group members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42,1051-1068. (1982).
122. Payne, B. K. Prejudice and perception: The role of automatic and controlled processes in misperceiving a weapon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81,181-192. (2001).
123. Pearson, A. R. West, T. V. Dovidio, J. F. Powers, S. R. Buck, R., &Henning, R. The fragility of intergroup relations. Psychological Science, 19,1272-1279. (2008).
124. Pettigrew, T. F. The ultimate attribution error: Extending Allport's cognitive analysis of prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 5,461-476. (1979).
125. Pettigrew, T. F. Intergroup Contact Theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49,65-85. (1998).
126. Pettigrew, T. F. The advantages of multi-level approaches. Journal of Social Issues, 62,615-620. (2006).
127. Pettigrew, T. F. Future directions for intergroup contact theory and research. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32,187-199. (2008).
128. Pettigrew, T. F. Tropp, L. A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90,751-783. (2006).
129. Phelps, E. A. O'Connor, K. J. Cunningham, W. A. Funayama, E. S. Gatenby, J. C. Gore, J. C., et al. Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12,729-738. (2000).
130. Putnam, R. D. E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and community in the twenty-first century: The 2006 Johan Skytte Prize Lecture. Scandanavian Political Studies, 30,137-174. (2007).
131. Rudman, L. A. Sources of implicit attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13,80-83. (2004).
132. Schaller, M. Conway, L. G., III, &Tanchuk, T. Selective pressures on the once and future contents of ethnic stereotypes: Effects of the communicability of traits., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82,861-877. (2002).
133. Sears, D. O.(1988). Symbolic racism. In P. A.Katz, & D. A.Taylor (Eds), Eliminating Racism: Profiles in Controversy (pp. 53-84).New York:Plenum Press.
134. Sears, D. O., Henry, P. J., Kosterman, R.(2000). Egalitarian values and contemporary racial politics. In D. O.Sears, J.Sidanius, & L.Bobo (Eds), Racialized Politics: The Debate about Racism in America (pp. 75-117).Chicago, IL:University of Chicago Press.
135. Sekaquaptewa, D., &Thompson, M. Solo status, stereotype threat, and performance expectancies: Their effects on women's performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39,68-74. (2003).
136. Shelton, J. N., Dovidio, J. F., Hebl, M., &Richeson, J. A.(2009). Prejudice and intergroup interaction. In S.Demoulin, J-PLeyens, & J. F.Dovidio (Eds). Intergroup Misunderstandings: Impact of Divergent Social Realities (pp. 21-38).New York:Psychology Press.
137. Shelton, J. N., &Richeson, J. A. Intergroup contact and pluralistic ignorance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88,91-107. (2005).
138. Shelton, J. N., &Richeson, J. A.(2006). Interracial interactions: A relational approach. In M. P.Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 38, pp. 121-181).New York:Academic Press.
139. Shelton, J. N. Richeson, J. A. Salvatore, J., &Trawalter, S. Ironic effects of racial bias during interracial interactions. Psychological Science, 16,397-402. (2005).
140. Sherif, M.(1966). Group Conflict and Cooperation: Their Social Psychology. London:Routledge and Kegan Paul.
141. Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R., &Sherif, C. W.(1961). Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation. The Robbers Cave Experiment. Norman, OK:University of Oklahoma Book Exchange.
142. Sherif, M., &Sherif, C. W.(1969). Social Psychology. New York:Harper & Row.
143. Sidanius, J., &Pratto, F.(1999). Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. New York:Cambridge University Press.
144. Smith, E. R.(1993). Social identity and social emotions: Toward new conceptualizations of prejudice. In D. M.Mackie, & D. L.Hamilton (Eds), Affect, Cognition, and Stereotyping: Interactive Processes in Group Perception (pp. 297-315).San Diego:Academic Press.
145. Spears, R.(2001). The interaction between the individual and the collective self: Self-categorization in context. In C.Sedikides, & M. B.Brewer (Eds), Individual Self, Relational Self, Collective Self (pp. 171-198).Philadelphia, PA:Psychology Press.
146. Steele, C. M. A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52,613-629. (1997).
147. Stephan, W., &Stephan, C. W. Intergroup anxiety. Journal of Social Issues, 41,157-175. (1985).
148. Stephan, W. G., &StephanC.W.(2000). An integrated threat theory of prejudice. In S.Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination (pp. 23-45).Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum.
149. Stolle, D. Soroka, S., &Johnston, R. When does diversity erode trust? Political Studies, 56,57-75. (2008).
150. Sumner, W. G.(1906). Folkways. Boston, MA:Ginn.
151. Tajfel, H. Cognitive aspects of prejudice. Journal of Social Issues, 25 (4),79-97. (1969).
152. Tajfel, H. Experiments in intergroup discrimination. Scientific American, 223,96-102. (1970).
153. Tajfel, H., &Turner, J. C.(1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G.Austin, & S.Worchel (Eds), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 33-48).Monterey, CA:Brooks/Cole.
154. Turner, J. C.(1985). Social categorization and the self-concept: A social cognitive theory of group behavior. In E. J.Lawler (Ed.), Advances in Group Processes (Vol. 2, pp. 77-122).Greenwich, CT:JAI Press.
155. Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., &Wetherell, M. S.(1987). Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory. Oxford, U.K.:Basil Blackwell.
156. Verkuyten, M., &Hagendoorn, L. Prejudice and self-categorization: The variable role of authoritarianism and in-group stereotypes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24,99-110. (1998).
157. Vidmar, N. When all of us are victims: Juror prejudice and "terrorist" trials. Chicago-Kent Law Review, 78,1143. (2003).
158. von Baeyer, C. L. Sherk, D.L., &Zanna, M. P. Impression management in the job interview: When the female applicant meets the male (chauvinist) interviewer, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7,45-51. (1981).
159. Wagner, U., &Zick, A. Formal education and ethnic prejudice, European Journal of Social Psychology, 25,41-56. (1995).
160. Wilder, D. A.(1981). Perceiving persons as a group: Categorization and intergroup relations. In D. L.Hamilton (Ed.), Cognitive Processes in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior (pp. 213-257).Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum.
161. Wilder, D. A.(1986). Social categorization: Implications for creation and reduction of intergroup bias. In L.Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 291-355).Orlando, FL:Academic Press.
162. Williams, R. M., Jr.(1947). The Reduction of Intergroup Tensions. New York:Social Science Research Council.
163. Wilson, T. D. Lindsey, S., &Schooler, T. Y. A model of dual attitudes. Psychological Review, 107,101-126. (2000).
164. Worchel, S. Rothgerber, H. Day, E. A. Hart, D., &Butemeyer, J. Social identity and individual productivity within groups. British Journal of Social Psychology, 37,389-413. (1998).
165. Zick, A. Pettigrew, T. F., &Wagner, U. Ethnic prejudice and discrimination in Europe. Journal of Social Issues, 64,233-251. (2008).