The cost of color: Skin color, discrimination, and health among African-Americans

American Journal of Sociology

Volumn 121, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 396-444

  Monk, Ellis P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AFRICAN AMERICAN; DEPRESSION; HEALTH EQUITY; HEALTH STATUS; HUMAN; MENTAL HEALTH; PREJUDICE; PSYCHOLOGY; SELF REPORT; SKIN PIGMENTATION; STANDARDS; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA; UNITED STATES;

AFRICAN AMERICANS; DEPRESSION; HEALTH EQUITY; HEALTH STATUS; HUMANS; MENTAL HEALTH; PREJUDICE; SELF REPORT; SKIN PIGMENTATION; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84943624886     PISSN: 00029602     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/682162     Document Type: Article

References (135)

1. Adler, Nancy E., Elissa S. Epel, Grace Castellazzo, and Jeannette R. Ickovics. 2000. “Relationship of Subjective and Objective Social Status with Psychological and Physiological Functioning: Preliminary Data in Healthy White Women.” Health Psychology 19:586-92.
2. Anderson, Claud, and Rue L. Cromwell. 1977. “‘Black Is Beautiful’ and the Color Preferences of Afro-American Youth.” Journal of Negro Education 46 (1): 76-88.
3. Bailey, Stanley. 2009. Legacies of Race: Identities, Attitudes, and Politics in Brazil. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
4. Bailey, Stanley, Mara Loveman, and Jeronimo O. Muniz. 2013. “Measures of ‘Race’ and the Analysis of Racial Inequality in Brazil.” Social Science Research 42 (1): 106-19.
5. Bargh, John A., Kay L. Schwader, Sarah E. Hailey, Rebecca L. Dyer, and Erica J. Boothby. 2012. “Automaticity in Social-Cognitive Processes.” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16 (12): 593-605.
6. Blair, Irene V., Charles M. Judd, and Kristine M. Chapleau. 2004. “The Influence of Afrocentric Facial Features in Criminal Sentencing.” Psychological Science 15 (10): 674-79.
7. Blair, Irene V., Charles M. Judd, Melody S. Sadler, and Christopher Jenkins. 2002. “The Role of Afrocentric Features in Person Perception: Judging by Features and Categories.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83:5-25.
8. Blumer, Herbert. 1969. Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
9. Bodenhorn, Howard. 2006. “Colorism, Complexion Homogamy, and Household Wealth: Some Historical Evidence.” American Economic Review 96 (2): 256-60.
10. Bodenhorn, Howard, and Christopher S. Ruebeck. 2007. “Colourism and African- American Wealth: Evidence from the Nineteenth-Century South.” Journal of Population Economics 20:599-620.
11. Bond, Selena, and Thomas F. Cash. 1992. “Black Beauty: Skin Color and Body Images among African-American College Women.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 22:874-88.
12. Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo, and David R. Dietrich. 2009. “The Latin Americanization of U.S. Race Relations: A New Pigmentocracy.” Pp. 40-60 in Shades of Difference: Why Skin Color Matters, edited by Evelyn Nakano Glenn. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
13. Borrell, Luisa N., Catarina I. Kiefe, David R. Williams, Ana V. Diez-Roux, and Penny Gordon-Larsen. 2006. “Self-Reported Health, Perceived Racial Discrimination, and Skin Color in African Americans in the CARDIA Study.” Social Science and Medicine 64:1415-27.
14. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1998. Practical Reason. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
15. Bourdieu, Pierre. 2000. Pascalian Meditations. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
16. Bourdieu, Pierre, and Loïc Wacquant. 1992. An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
17. Brubaker, Rogers. 2004. Ethnicity without Groups. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
18. Brubaker, Rogers, Mara Loveman, and Peter Stamatov. 2004. “Ethnicity as Cognition.” Theory and Society 33:31-64.
19. Burton, Linda M., Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Victor Ray, Rose Buckelew, and Elizabeth Hordge Freeman. 2010. “Critical Race Theories, Colorism, and the Decade’s Research on Families of Color.” Journal of Marriage and Family 72 (3): 440-59.
20. Campbell, Mary, and Lisa Troyer. 2007. “The Implications of Racial Misclassification by Observers.” American Sociological Review 72:750-65.
21. Chae, David H., Karen D. Lincoln, Nancy E. Adler, and S. Leonard Syme. 2010. “Do Experiences of Racial Discrimination Predict Cardiovascular Disease among African American Men? The Moderating Role of Internalized Negative Racial Group Attitudes.” Social Science and Medicine 71 (6): 1182-88.
22. Chae, David H., Amani M. Nuru-Jeter, Karen D. Lincoln, and Darlene D. Francis. 2011. “Conceptualizing Racial Disparities in Health.” Du Bois Review 8 (1): 63-77.
23. Clark, K. B., and Lawrence Summers. 1979. “Labor Market Dynamics and Unemployment: A Reconsideration.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 1:13-72.
24. Clark, Rodney, Norman B. Anderson, Vernessa R. Clark, and David R. Williams. 1999. “Racism as a Stressor for African Americans: A Biopsychosocial Model.” American Psychologist 54 (10): 805-16.
25. Cooley, Charles Horton. 1983. Human Nature and the Social Order. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction.
26. Das, Aniruddha. 2013. “How Does Race Get ‘Under the Skin’? Inflammation, Weathering, and Metabolic Problems in Late Life.” Social Science and Medicine 77:75-83.
27. Dasgupta, Nilanjana, Mahzarin R. Banaji, and Robert P. Abelson. 1999. “Group Entitativity and Group Perception: Associations between Physical Features and Psychological Judgment.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (5): 991-1003.
28. Davis, F. James. 1991. Who Is Black? University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
29. Davis, James A. 1956. “Status Symbols and the Measurement of Status Perception.” Sociometry 19:154-65.
30. Deaux, Kay, and Laurie L. Lewis. 1984. “Structure of Gender Stereotypes: Interrelationships among Components and Gender Label.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46:991-1004.
31. DeSalvo, Karen B., Nicole Bloser, Kristi Reynolds, Jiang He, and Paul Muntner. 2006. “Mortality Prediction with a Single General Self-Rated Health Question.” Journal of General Internal Medicine 21 (3): 267-75.
32. Devine, Patricia G., and Sara M. Baker. 1991. “Measurement of Racial Stereotype Subtyping.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17:44-50.
33. DiMaggio, Paul. 1997. “Culture and Cognition.” Annual Review of Sociology 23:263-87.
34. Drake, St. Clair, and Horace Cayton. (1945) 1993. Black Metropolis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
35. Dressler, William W., Kathryn S. Oths, and Clarence C. Gravlee. 2005. “Race and Ethnicity in Public Health Research Models to Explain Health Disparities.” Annual Review of Anthropology 34:231-52.
36. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1899) 1995. The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
37. Dwyer, Terence, H. Konrad Muller, Leigh Blizzard, Rosie Ashbolt, and Geoffrey Phillips. 1998. “The Use of Spectrophotometry to Estimate Melanin Density in Caucasians.” Cancer Epidemiology: Biomarkers Prevention 7:203-6.
38. Eberhardt, Jennifer L., Phillip Atiba Goff, Valerie J. Purdie, and Paul G. Davies. 2004. “Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87 (6): 876-93.
39. Eberhardt, Jennifer L., Paul G. Davies, Valerie J. Purdie-Vaughns, and Sheri Lynn Johnson. 2006. “Looking Deathworthy: Perceived Stereotypicality of Black Defendants Predicts Capital-Sentencing Outcomes.” Psychological Science 17:383-86.
40. Edwards, Franklin G. 1959. The Negro Professional Class. New York: Free Press.
41. Fiske, Susan T. 2000. “Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination at the Seam between the Centuries: Evolution, Culture, Mind, and Brain.” European Journal of Social Psychology 30:299-322.
42. Edwards, Franklin G. 2011. Envy Up, Scorn Down: How Status Divides Us. New York: Russell Sage.
43. Frazier, E. Franklin. 1940. Negro Youth at the Crossways: Their Personality Development in the Middle States. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education.
44. Frazier, E. Franklin. 1957. The Black Bourgeoisie. New York: Free Press.
45. Goffman, Erving. (1963) 1986. Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. New York: Simon & Schuster.
46. Golash-Boza, Tanya, and William Darity, Jr. 2008. “Latino Racial Choices: The Effects of Skin Colour and Discrimination on Latinos’ and Latinas’ Racial Self- Identifications.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 31 (5): 899-934.
47. Goldsmith, Arthur, Jonathan Veum, and William Darity, Jr. 1995. “Are Being Unemployed and Being out of the Labor Force Distinct States? A Psychological Approach.” Journal of Economic Psychology 16:275-95.
48. Green, Raymond J., Richard D. Ashmore, and Robert Manzi. Jr. 2005. “The Structure of Gender Type Perception: Testing the Elaboration, Encapsulation, and Evaluation Framework.” Social Cognition 23 (5): 429-64.
49. Gyimah-Brempong, Kwabena, and Gregory N. Price. 2006. “Crime and Punishment: And Skin Hue Too?” American Economic Association 96 (2): 246-50.
50. Hagiwara, Nao, Deborah A. Kashy, and Joseph Cesario. 2012. “The Independent Effects of Skin Tone and Facial Features on Whites’ Affective Reactions to Blacks.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48 (4): 892-98.
51. Hamilton, Darrick, Arthur Goldsmith, and William Darity Jr. 2009. “Shedding ‘Light’ on Marriage: The Influence of Skin Shade on Marriage for Black Females.” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 72 (1): 30-50.
52. Harburg, Ernest, Lillian Gleibermann, Peter Roeper, M. Anthony Schork, and William J. Schull. 1978. “Skin Color, Ethnicity and Blood Pressure I: Detroit Blacks.” American Journal of Public Health 68 (12): 1177-83.
53. Harnois, Catherine E., and Mosi Ifatunji. 2011. “Gendered Measures, Gendered Models: Toward an Intersectional Analysis of Interpersonal Racial Discrimination.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 34:1006-28.
54. Harris, David R., and Jeremiah Sim. 2002. “Who Is Multiracial? Assessing the Complexity of Lived Race.” American Sociological Review 67:614-27.
55. Harris, Marvin. 1970. “Referential Ambiguity in the Calculus of Brazilian Racial Identity.” Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 26:1-14.
56. Hayward, Mark D., Eileen Crimmins, Toni P. Miles, and Yu Yang. 2000. “The Significance of Socioeconomic Status in Explaining the Racial Gap in Chronic Health Conditions.” American Sociological Review 65:910-30.
57. Heeringa, Steven G., James Wagner, Myriam Torres, Naihua Duan, Terry Adams, and Patricia Berglund. 2004. “Sample Designs and Sampling Methods for the Collaborative Epidemiology Studies (CPES).” International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 13 (4): 221-40.
58. Hersch, Joni. 2008. “Profiling the New Immigrant Worker: The Effects of Skin Color and Height.” Journal of Labor Economics 26 (2): 345-86.
59. Hersch, Joni. 2011. “Skin Color, Physical Appearance, and Perceived Discriminatory Treatment.” Journal of Socio-Economics 40 (5): 671-78.
60. Hill, Mark E. 2002. “Race of the Interviewer and Perception of Skin Color: Evidence from the Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality.” American Sociological Review 67: 99-108.
61. Hudson, Darrell L., H. W. Neighbors, A. T. Geronimus, and J. S. Jackson. 2012. “The Relationship between Socioeconomic Position and Depression among a US Nationally Representative Sample of African Americans.” Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 47:373-81.
62. Hughes, M., and B. R. Hertel. 1990. “The Significance of Color Remains: A Study of Life Chances, Mate Selection, and Ethnic Consciousness among Black Americans.” Social Forces 68 (4): 1105-20.
63. Hunter, Margaret L. 2005. Race, Gender, and the Politics of Skin Tone. New York: Routledge.
64. Idler, Ellen L., and Yael Benyamini. 1997. “Self-Rated Health and Mortality: A Review of Twenty-Seven Community Studies.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 38: 21-37.
65. Irmen, Lisa. 2006. “Automatic Activation and Use of Gender Subgroups.” Sex Roles 55:435-44.
66. Ito, T. A., and G. R. Urland. 2003. “Race and Gender on the Brain: Electrocortical Measures of Attention to the Race and Gender of Multiply Categorizable Individuals.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85:616-626.
67. Jackson, J. S., M. Torres, C. H. Caldwell, H. W. Neighbors, R. M. Nesse, R. J. Taylor et al. 2004. “The National Survey of American Life: A Study of Racial, Ethnic and Cultural Influences on Mental Disorders and Mental Health.” International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 13 (4): 196-207.
68. Johnson, Charles S. 1934. Shadow of the Plantation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
69. Jylhä, Marja. 2009. “What Is Self-Rated Health and Why Does It Predict Mortality? Towards a Unified Conceptual Model.” Social Science and Medicine 69:307-16.
70. Jylhä, Marja, Stefano Volpato, and Jack M. Guralnik. 2006. “Self-Rated Health Showed a Graded Association with Frequently Used Biomarkers in a Large Population Sample.” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 59:465-71.
71. Kaplan, J., and S. Manuck. 1999. “Status, Stress, and Artherosclerosis.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 896:145-61.
72. Keith, Verna, and Cedric Herring. 1991. “Skin Tone and Stratification in the Black Community.” American Journal of Sociology 97 (3): 760-78.
73. Keith, Verna, Karen D. Lincoln, Robert Joseph Taylor, and James S. Jackson. 2010. “Discriminatory Experiences and Depressive Symptoms among African American Women: Do Skin Tone and Mastery Matter?” Sex Roles 62 (1): 48-59.
74. Kessler, Ronald C., Kristin D. Mickelson, and David R. Williams. 1999. “The Prevalence, Distribution, and Mental Health Correlates of Perceived Discrimination in the United States.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 40:208-30.
75. Keyes, Corey. 2009. “The Black-White Paradox in Health: Flourishing in the Face of Social Inequality and Discrimination.” Journal of Personality 77 (6): 1677-1706.
76. Khanna, Nikki. 2010. “‘If You’re Half Black, You’re Just Black’: Reflected Appraisals and the Persistence of the One Drop Rule.” Sociological Quarterly 51:96-121.
77. Klonoff, Elizabeth, and Hope Landrine. 2000. “Is Skin Color a Marker for Racial Discrimination? Explaining the Skin Color-Hypertension Relationship.” Journal of Behavioral Medicine 23:329-38.
78. Krieger, Nancy. 1999. “Embodying Inequality: A Review of Concepts, Measures, and Methods for Studying Health Consequences of Discrimination.” International Journal of Health Services 29:295-352.
79. Krieger, Nancy, Stephen Sidney, and Eugenie Coakley. 1998. “Racial Discrimination and Skin Color in the CARDIA Study: Implications for Public Health Research.” American Journal of Public Health 99:1308-13.
80. Lewis, Tené T., Allison E. Aiello, Sue Leurgans, Jeremiah Kelly, and Lisa L. Barnes. 2010. “Self-Reported Experiences of Everyday Discrimination Are Associated with Elevated C-Reactive Protein Levels in Older African-American Adults.” Brain Behavior Immunity 24 (3): 438-43.
81. Lewis, Tené T., Lisa L. Barnes, Julia L. Bienias, Daniel T. Lackland, Denis A. Evans, and Carlos F. Mendes De Leon. 2009. “Perceived Discrimination and Blood Pressure in Older African American and White Adults.” Journal of Gerontology A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 64:1002-8.
82. Macrae, C. Neil, and Galen V. Bodenhausen. 2001. “Social Cognition: Categorical Person Perception.” British Journal of Psychology 92:239-55.
83. Maddox, Keith B. 2004. “Perspectives on Racial Phenotypicality Bias.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 8:383-401.
84. Maddox, Keith B., and Stephanie A. Gray. 2002. “Cognitive Representations of Black Americans: Reexploring the Role of Skin Tone.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2): 250-59.
85. Maddox, Keith B., and Stephanie Gray Chase 2004. “Manipulating Subcategory Salience: Exploring the Link between Skin Tone and Social Perception of Blacks.” European Journal of Social Psychology 34:533-46.
86. Mason, Patrick L. 2004. “Annual Income, Hourly Wages, and Identity among Mexican- Americans and Other Latinos.” Industrial Relations 43 (4): 817-34.
87. McCord, Colin, and Harold P. Freeman. 1990. “Excess Mortality in Harlem.” New England Journal of Medicine 322 (3): 173-77.
88. Mead, George Herbert. 1934. Mind, Self, and Society, edited by Charles W. Morris. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
89. Monk, Ellis P., Jr. 2013. “Color, Bodily Capital, and Ethnoracial Division in the U.S. and Brazil.” Ph.D. dissertation. University of California,Berkeley, Department of Sociology.
90. Monk, Ellis P., Jr. 2014. “Skin Tone Stratification among Black Americans, 2001-2003.” Social Forces 92 (4): 1313-37.
91. Mossey, J. M., and E. Shapiro. 1982. “Self-Rated Health: A Predictor of Mortality among the Elderly.” American Journal of Public Health 72:800-808.
92. Mouzon, Dawne M. 2013. “Can Family Relationships Explain the Race Paradox in Mental Health.” Journal of Marriage and Family 75:470-85.
93. Murguia, E., and E. E. Telles. 1996. “Phenotype and Schooling among Mexican Americans.” Sociology of Education 69 (4): 276-89.
94. Operario, D., N. E. Adler, and D. R. Williams. 2004. “Subjective Social Status: Reliability and Predictive Utility for Global Health.” Psychology and Health 19 (2): 237-46.
95. Paradies, Y. 2006. “A Systematic Review of Empirical Research on Self-Reported Racism and Health.” International Journal of Epidemiology 35:888-901.
96. Parrish, C. H. 1946. “Color Names and Color Notions.” Journal of Negro Education 15:13-20.
97. Pascoe, E. A., and L. Richman. 2009. “Perceived Discrimination and Health: A Metaanalytic Review.” Psychological Bulletin 135 (4): 531-54.
98. Pattyn, Sven, Yves Rosseel, Frank Van Overwalle, and Alain Van Hiel. 2015. “Social Classification Occurs at the Subgroup Level: Evidence Based on a Multidimensional Scaling Study.” Social Psychology 46 (1): 13-23.
99. Phelan, J. C., B. G. Link, and P. Tehranifar. 2010. “Social Conditions as Fundamental Causes of Health Inequalities: Theory, Evidence, and Policy Implications.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 51:S28-S40.
100. Reuter, Edward Byron. 1917. The Mulatto in the United States. New York: Negro Universities Press. Ridgeway, Cecelia L. 2014. “Why Status Matters for Inequality.” American Sociological Review 79 (1): 1-16.
101. Roth, Wendy D. 2010. “Racial Mismatch: The Divergence between Form and Function in Data for Monitoring Racial Discrimination of Hispanics.” Social Science Quarterly 91 (5): 1288-1311.
102. Russell, Kathy, Midge Wilson, and Ronald E. Hall. 1992. The Color Complex: The Politics of Skin Color among African Americans. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
103. Saperstein, Aliya. 2012. “Capturing Complexity in the United States: Which Aspects of Race Matter and When?” Ethnic and Racial Studies 35 (8): 1484-1502.
104. Saperstein, Aliya, and Andrew Penner. 2012. “Racial Fluidity and Inequality in the United States.” American Journal of Sociology 118:676-727.
105. Sawyer, Pamela J., Brenda Major, Bettina J. Casad, Sarah S. M. Townsend, and Wendy Berry Mendes. 2012. “Discrimination and the Stress Response: Psychological and Physiological Consequences of Anticipating Prejudice in Interethnic Interactions.” American Journal of Public Health 102:1020-26.
106. Schwartz, Sharon, and Ilan Meyer. 2010. “Mental Health Disparities Research: The Impact of within and between Group Analyses on Tests of Social Stress Hypotheses.” Social Science and Medicine 70 (8): 1111-18.
107. Schwartzman, Luisa. 2007. “Does Money Whiten? Intergenerational Changes in Racial Classification in Brazil.” American Sociological Review 72:940-83.
108. Sharkey, Patrick. 2013. Stuck in Place: Urban Neighborhoods and the End of Progress toward Racial Equality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
109. Singh-Manoux, Archana, Nancy E. Adler, and Michael G. Marmot. 2003. “Subjective Social Status: Its Determinants and Its Association with Measures of Ill-Health in the Whitehall II Study.” Social Science and Medicine 56:1321-33.
110. Singh-Manoux, Archana, Michael G. Marmot, and Nancy E. Adler. 2005. “Does Subjective Social Status Predict Health and Change in Health Status Better than Objective Status?” Psychosomatic Medicine 67 (6): 855-61.
111. Steele, Claude M., and Joshua Aronson. 1995. “Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 (5): 797-811.
112. Stepanova, Elena V., and Michael J. Strube. 2012. “The Role of Skin Color and Facial Physiognomy in Racial Categorization: Moderation by Implicit Racial Attitudes.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48 (4): 867-78.
113. Telles, Edward E. 2004. Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
114. Telles, Edward E., and Nelson Lim. 1998. “Does It Matter Who Answers the Race Question? Racial Classification and Income Inequality in Brazil.” Demography 35: 465-74.
115. Twuyver, Mariette Van, and Ad Van Knippenberg. 1998. “Effects of Group Membership and Identification on Categorization and Subtyping in Memory.” European Journal of Social Psychology 28:531-53.
116. Uzogara, E. E., H. Lee, C. M. Abdou, and J. S. Jackson. 2014. “A Comparison of Skin Tone Discrimination among African American Men, 1995 and 2003.” Psychology of Men and Masculinity 15 (2): 201-12. doi:10.1037/a0033479.
117. van der Linde, Rianne M., Nahal Mavaddat, Robert Luben, Carol Brayne, Rebecca K. Simmons, Kay Tee Khaw, and Ann Louise Kinmonth. 2013. “Self-Rated Health and Cardiovascular Disease Incidence: Results from a Longitudinal Population-Based Cohort in Norfolk, UK.” PLoS ONE 8 (6):e65290.
118. Viglione, Jill, Lance Hannon, and Robert DeFina. 2011. “The Impact of Light Skin on Prison Time for Black Female Offenders.” Social Science Journal 48:250-58.
119. Villarreal, Andres. 2012. “Flawed Statistical Reasoning and Misconceptions about Race and Ethnicity.” American Sociological Review 77 (3): 495-502.
120. Wacquant, Loïc. 1995. “Pugs at Work: Bodily Capital and Bodily Labour among Professional Boxers.” Body and Society 1 (1): 65-93.
121. Wacquant, Loïc. 1997. “For an Analytic of Racial Domination.” Political Power and Social Theory 11:221-34.
122. Wacquant, Loïc. 2013. “Symbolic Power and Group-Making: On Bourdieu’s Reframing of Class.” Journal of Classical Sociology 13 (2): 274-91.
123. Wade, Joel T., Melaine Romano, and Leslie Blue. 2004. “The Effect of African American SkinColor on Hiring Preferences.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 34 (12): 2550-58.
124. Weaver, Vesla M. 2012. “The Electoral Consequences of Skin Color: The ‘Hidden’ Side of Race in Politics.” Political Behavior 34:159-92.
125. Wilder, JeffriAnne. 2010. “Revisiting ‘Color Names and Color Notion’: A Contemporary Examination of the Language and Attitudes of Skin Color among Young Black Women.” Journal of Black Studies 41:184-206.
126. Williams, David R. 1997. “Race and Health: Basic Questions, Emerging Directions.” Annals of Epidemiology 7 (5): 322-33.
127. Williams, David R. 2012. “Miles to Go before We Sleep: Racial Inequalities in Health.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 53 (3): 279-95.
128. Williams, David R., and Chiquita Collins. 1995. “US Socioeconomic and Racial Differences in Health: Patterns and Explanations.” Annual Review of Sociology 21:349-86.
129. Williams, David R., Dolly A. John, Daphna Oyserman, John Sonnega, Selina A. Mohammed, and James S. Jackson. 2012. “Research on Discrimination and Health: An Exploratory Study of Unresolved Conceptual and Measurement Issues.” American Journal of Public Health 102:975-78.
130. Williams, David R., and Selina A. Mohammed. 2009. “Discrimination and Racial Disparities in Health: Evidence and Needed Research.” Journal of Behavioral Medicine 32:20-47.
131. Williams, David R., and Selina A. Mohammed. 2013. “Racism and Health I: Pathways and Scientific Evidence.” American Behavioral Scientist 57 (8): 1152-73.
132. Williams, David R., Selina A. Mohammed, Jacinta Leavell, and Chiquita Collins. 2010. “Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Health: Complexities, Ongoing Challenges, and Research Opportunities.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1186:69-101.
133. Williams, David R., and Michelle Sternthal. 2010. “Understanding Racial-Ethnic Disparities in Health: Sociological Contributions.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 51:S15-S27.
134. Yeung, King-To, and John Levi Martin. 2003. “The Looking Glass Self: An Empirical Test and Elaboration.” Social Forces 81:843-79.
135. Zebrowitz, L. 1996. “Physical Appearance as a Basis of Stereotyping.” Pp. 79-120 in Stereotypes and Stereotyping, edited by C. N. Macrae, C. Stangor, and M. Hewstone. New York: Guilford.