Race and health: Basic questions, emerging directions

Annals of Epidemiology

Volumn 7, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 322-333

  Williams, David R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

Health Status; Methodology; Race; Racial Differences; Racism; Review; Risk Factors; Socioeconomic Factors

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CULTURAL FACTOR; HEALTH; HUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RACE DIFFERENCE; SOCIOECONOMICS; WELLBEING;

EID: 0030792316     PISSN: 10472797     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1047-2797(97)00051-3     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. Office of Management and Budget. Directive no. 15: Race and ethnic standards fot federal statistics and administrative reporting. Washington, D.C.: Office of Federal Statistical Policy and Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce; 1978.
2. Tucker C, McKay R, Kojetin, B, et al. Testing methods of collecting racial and ethnic information: results of the current population survey supplement on race and ethnicity. Bureau of Labor Statistical Notes, 40; 1996.
3. Williams DR. Race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status: measurement and methodological issues. International Journal of Health Services. 1996;26: 483-505.
4. Vega WA, Amaro H. Latino outlook: good health, uncertain prognosis. Annual Review of Public Health. 1994;15:39-67.
5. Sorlie PD, Backlund E, Johnson NJ, Rogot E. Mortality by Hispanic status in the United States. JAMA. 1993;270:2464-2468.
6. Zane NWS, Takeuchi DT, Young KNS. Confronting critical health issues of Asian and Pacific Islander Americans. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1994.
7. National Center for Health Statistics. Trends in Indian Health -1993. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Indian Health Service; 1993.
8. Williams DR, Collins C. U.S. Socioeconomic and racial differences in health. Annu Rev Sociol. 1995;21:349-386.
9. LaVeist TA. Beyond dummy variables and sample selection: What health services researchers ought to know about race as a variable. Health Serv Res. 1994;29:1-16.
10. Winick C, ed. Dictionary of Anthropology. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1969.
11. Baldwin JM. Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology. Vol. 2. Goucester, MA: Peter Smith; 1960.
12. Theodorson GA, Theodorson AG, eds. A Modern Dictionary of Sociology. New York: Thomas Y. Cromwell Co.; 1969.
13. Longman Dictionary of Psychology and Psychiatry. New York: Longman Publishing Group; 1984.
14. Jary D, Jary J. Collins Dictionary of Sociology. Glasgow, Scotland: Harper Collins; 1991.
15. Seymour-Smith C, ed. Macmillan Dictionary of Anthropology. London: Macmillan; 1986.
16. Reber AS. Penguin Dictionary of Psychology. New York: Viking's Penguin; 1985.
17. Pearson R, ed. Anthropological Glossary. Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger Publishing; 1985.
18. Gould SJ. Why we should not name human races: A biological view. In: Gould SJ, ed. Ever Since Darwin. New York: W. W. Norton; 1977:231-236.
19. Lieberman L, Stevenson BW, Reynolds LT. Race and anthropology: A core concept without consensus. Anthropology and Education Quarterly. 1989;20(2):67-73.
20. Littlefield A, Liberman L, Reynolds LT. Redefining race: The potential demise of a concept in physical anthropology. Curr Anthropol. 1982;23(6):641-655.
21. Lewontin RC. The apportionment of human diversity. In Dobzhansky T, Hecht MK, Steere WC, eds. Evolutionary Biology. Vol. 6. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1972:381-386.
22. Brace CL. The roots of the race concept in American physical anthropology. In Spencer F, ed. A History of American Physical Anthropology, 1930-1980. New York: Academic Press, Inc.; 1982:11-29.
23. Montagu A. The Concept of Race. New York: Free Press; 1964.
24. Montagu A. The Idea of Race. Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press; 1965.
25. Blakey ML. Skull doctors: Intrinsic social and political bias in the history of American physical anthropology. Critique of Anthropology. 1987;7(2):7-35.
26. Marshall GA. Racial classifications: Popular and scientific. In Mead M, Dobzhansky TE, Light RE, eds. Science and the Concept of Race. New York: Columbia University Press; 1968:149-164.
27. Lieberman L, Reynolds L, Kellum R. Institutional and socio-cultural influences on the debate over race. Catalyst. 1983;15:45-63.
28. Kaufman JS, Cooper, RS. In search of the hypothesis. Public Health Rep. 1995;110:662-666.
29. Rose S, Kamin LJ, Lewontin RC. Not in our genes: Biology, ideology, and human nature. New York: Penguin; 1984.
30. Jackson FL. Race and ethnicity as biological constructs. Ethn Dis. 1992;2(2):120-125.
31. Krieger N, Bassett M. The health of black folk: Disease, class and ideology in science. Monthly Review. 1986;38(3):74-85.
32. American Association of Physical Anthropology. AAPA Statement on Biological Aspects of Race. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1996;101: 569-570.
33. Last, JM, ed. A Dictionary of Epidemiology. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1995.
34. Melloni's Illustrated Medical Dictionary. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins; 1985.
35. Walker, PMB, ed. Cambridge Dictionary of Biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1989.
36. Stedman's Medical Dictionary. The American Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary. Boston: Houghton Mifflin; 1995.
37. King RD, ed. Dictionary of Genetics. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1990.
38. Mosby's Medical, Nursing, and Allied Health Dictionary. 4th ed. Chicago: Mosby; 1994.
39. Last JM. Dictionary of Epidemiology. 2nd ed., New York: Oxford University Press; 1988.
40. Cooper RS, David R. The biological concept of race and its application to public health and epidemiology. J Health Polit Policy Law. 1986;11:97-116.
41. Osborne NG, Feit MD. The use of race in medical research. JAMA. 1992;267:275-279.
42. Caldwell SH, Popenoe R. Perceptions and misperceptions of skin colon. Ann Int Med. 1995;122:41-43.
43. Witzig H. The medicalization of race: Scientific Legitimization of a flawed social construct. Ann Int Med. 1996;125:675-679.
44. Huth EJ. Identifying ethnicity in medical papers. Ann Int Med. 1995;122:619-620.
45. Muntaner C, Nieto FJ, O'Campo P. The Bell curve: On race, social class, and epidemiologic research. Am J Epidemiol. 1996;144:531-536.
46. Charatz-Litt C. A chronicle of racism: The effects of the white medical community on black health. J Nat Med Assoc. 1992;84: 717-725.
47. Duster T. A social frame for biological knowledge. In Duster T, Garrett K, eds. Cultural Perspectives on Biological Knowledge. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing; 1984.
48. Bagley C. A plea for ignoring race and including insured status in American research reports on social science and medicine. Soc Sci Med. 1995;40:1017-1019.
49. Cooper RS. A case study in the use of race and ethnicity in public health surveillance. Public Health Rep. 1994;109:46-52.
50. Evinger S. How shall we measure our nation's diversity? Chance. 1995;8(1):7-14.
51. See KO, Wilson WJ. Race and ethnicity. In Smelser NJ, ed. Handbook of Sociology. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications; 1988:223-242.
52. Anderson M, Fienberg SE. Black, white, and shades of gray (and brown and yellow). Chance. 1995;8(1):15-18.
53. Omi M, Winant H. Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1980s. New York: Routledge; 1986.
54. Quadagno J. The color of welfare: How racism undermined the war on poverty. New York: Oxford University Press; 1994.
55. Menefee LT. Are black Americans entitled to equal health care? A new research paradigm. Ethn Dis. 1996;6(1,2):56-68.
56. U.S. Census of Population, Detailed Ancestry Groups for States. Washington, DC. U.S. Dept. of Commerce; 1992.
57. Lieberson S. A piece of the pie: Black and white immigrants since 1880. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 1980.
58. Nelson C, Tienda M. The structuring of Hispanic ethnicity: Historical and contemporary perspectives. In Alba RD, ed. Ethnicity and Race in the USA. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; 1985:49-74.
59. Flowers Gary L. New racial classifications in 2000 Census: A setback for Civil Rights enforcement? Committee Report (Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under Law), 1994/1995;6(1):1,3,4-6.
60. Tajfel H, Turner JC. The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior. Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall Pubs., 1986.
61. Williams DR. The Concept of Race in Health Services Research: 1966 to 1990. Health Services Research. 1994;29(3):261-274.
62. Jones CP, LaVeist TA, Lillie-Blanton M. Race in the epidemiologic literature: An examination of the American Journal of Epidemiology, 1921-1990. Am J Epidemiol. 1991;134:1079-1084.
63. Hahn RA. The state of federal health statistics on racial and ethnic groups. JAMA. 1992;267:268-279.
64. Senior PA, Bhopal R. Ethnicity as a variable in epidemiological research. BMJ. 1994;309:327-330.
65. Massey DS, Denton NA. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1993.
66. Franklin JH. Color and Race. Boston, MA: Houghton Miflin Co.; 1968.
67. Keith VM, Herring C. Skin tone and stratification in the black community. Am J Sociol. 1991;97:760-778.
68. Arce CH, Murguia E, Frisbie WP. Phenotype and life chances among Chicanos. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 1987;9:19-32.
69. Rosen S. Intermarriage and the "Blending of exiles" in Israel. Research-in-Race-and-Ethnic-Relations. 1982;3:79-102.
70. Kraus V, Koresh Y. The course of residential segregation: Ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and suburbanization in Israel. Sociological Quarterly. 1992;33:303-319.
71. Gale N. A case of double rejection: The immigration of Sephardim to Australia. New Community. 1994;20:269-286.
72. Klag MH, Whelton PK, Coresh J, Grim CE, Kuller LH. The association of skin color with blood pressure in US blacks with low socioeconomic status. JAMA. 1991;265:599-602.
73. Dressler WW. Social identity and arterial blood pressure in the African-American community. Ethn Dis. 1996;6:176-190.
74. Williams DR, Lavizzo-Mourey R, Warren RC. The concept of race and health status in America. Public Health Rep. 1994;109:26-41.
75. King G, Williams DR. Race and health: A multidimensional approach to African American Health. In Amick BC, Levine S, Walsh DC, Tarlov AR, eds. Society and Health. New York: Oxford University Press; 1995.
76. Williams DR. Racism and health: A research agenda. Ethn Dis. 1996;6(1,2):1-6.
77. Lieberson S. Making it Count: The Improvement of Social Research and Theory. Berkeley: University of California Press; 1985.
78. Krieger N. Epidemiology and the web of causation: Has anyone seen the spider? Soc Sci Med. 1994;39:887-903.
79. Williams DR. Socioeconomic differentials in health: A review and redirection. Social Psychology Quarterly. 1990;53(2):81-99.
80. House JS, Kessler RC, Herzog AR, Mero R, Kinney A, Breslow M. Age, socioeconomic status, and health. Milbank. 1990;68:383-411.
81. Link BG, Phelan J. Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Extra Issue. 1995;80-94.
82. Betancourt H, Lopez SR. The study of culture, ethnicity, and race in American psychology. Am Psychol. 1993;48:629-637.
83. Williams DR. The Health of the African American Population. In Pedraza S, Rumbaut R, eds. Origins and Destinies: Immigration, Race, and Ethnicity in America. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth; 1996:404-416.
84. Smaje C. The ethnic patterning of health: New directions for theory and research. Sociology of Health and Illness. 1996;18(2):139-171.
85. Singer B, Ryff CD. Racial and ethnic inequalities in health: Environmental, psychological and physiological pathways. In Fienberg SE, Roeger K, Devlin B, eds. Beyond the Bell Curve. New York: Springer-Verlag. 1997: in press.
86. Bradby H. Ethnicity: Not a black and white issue. Sociology of Health and Illness. 1995;17(3):405-417.
87. Krieger N, Rowley DL, Herman AA, Avery B, Phillips MT. Racism, sexism, and social class: Implications for studies of health, disease, and well-being. Am J Prev Med. 1993;9(6 suppl):82-122.
88. Hummer RA. Black-white differences in health and mortality: A review and conceptual model. Sociol Q. 1996;37(1):105-125.
89. Cell J. The Highest Stage of White Supremacy: The Origin of Segregation on South Africa and the American South. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1982.
90. Polednak A. Trends in U.S. urban black infant mortality, by degree of residential segregation. Am J Public Health. 1996;86:723-726.
91. LaVeist TA. Segregation, poverty, and empowerment: Health consequences of African Americans. Milbank. 1993;71:41-64.
92. Bryant R, Mohai P. Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards: A Time for Discourse. Boulder, CO: Westview Press; 1992.
93. Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs. Black-white disparities in health care. JAMA. 1990;263:2344-2346.
94. McBean AM, Gornick M. Differences by race in the rates of procedures performed in hospitals for Medicare beneficiaries. Health Care Financing Review. 1994;15(4):77-90.
95. Giles WH, Anda RF, Casper ML, Escobedo LG, Taylor HA. Race and sex differences in rates of invasive cardiac procedures in U.S. hospitals. Arch Int Med. 1995;155:318-324.
96. King G. Institutional racism and the medical/health complex: A conceptual analysis. Ethn Dis. 1996;6(1,2):30-46.
97. LaVeist TA. The political empowerment and health status of African-Americans: Mapping a new territory. Am J Sociol. 1992;97: 1080-1095.
98. Rice M. Hospital/health facilities and the Hill-Burton obligations. Urban League Review. 1985-1986;9(2):39-46.
99. Lillie-Blanton M, Parsons PE, Gayle H, Dievler A. Racial differences in health: Not just black and white, but shades of gray. Annu Rev Public Health. 1996;17:441-448.
100. Williams DR, Yu Y, Jackson J, Anderson N. Racial differences in physical and mental health: Socioeconomic status, stress, and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology. 1997;2(3):335-351.
101. Krieger N, Williams DR, Moss N. Measuring social class in U.S. public health research: concepts, methodologies, and guidelines. Annu Rev Public Health. 1997;18:341-378.
102. Moore DJ, Williams JD, Quails WJ. Target marketing of tobacco and alcohol-related products to ethnic minority groups in the United States. Ethn Dis. 1996;6(1,2):83-98.
103. Gabarino J, Dubrown N, Kostelny K, Pardo C. Children in Danger: Coping with the Consequences of Community Violence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 1992.
104. Bell CC, Taylor-Crawford K, Jenkins EJ, Chalmers D. Need for victimization screening in a black psychiatric population. J Natl Med Assoc. 1988;80:41-48.
105. Anderson NB, Myers HF, Pickering T, Jackson JS. Hypertension in blacks: psychosocial and biological perspectives. J Hypertens. 1989;7:161-172.
106. Armstead C, Lawler K, Gordon G, Cross J, Gibbons J. Relationship of racial stressors to blood pressure responses and anger expression in black college students. Health Psychol. 1989;8:541-556.
107. Jones DR, Harrell JP, Morris-Prather CE, Thomas J, Omowale N. Affective and physiological responses to racism: The roles of afrocentrism and mode of presentation. Ethn Dis. 1996;6(1,2):109-122.
108. Morris-Prather CE, Harrell JP, Collins R, Leonard KLJ, Boss M, Lee JW. Gender differences in mood and cardiovascular responses to socially stressful stimuli. Ethn Dis. 1996;6(1,2):123-131.
109. Krieger N. Racial and gender discrimination: Risk factors for high blood pressure? Soc Sci Med. 1990;30:1273-1281.
110. Krieger N, Sidney S. Racial discrimination and blood pressure: The CARDIA study of young black and white women and men. Am J Public Health. 1996;86:1370-1378.
111. Williams DR, Chung A. Racism and health. In Gibson R, Jackson JS, eds. Health in Black America. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1997.
112. Amaro H, Russo NF, Johnson J. Family and work predictors of psychological well-being among Hispanic women professionals. Psychology of Women Quarterly. 1987;11:505-521.
113. Dion KL, Dion KK, Pak AW. Personality-based hardiness as a buffer for discrimination-related stress in members of Toronto's Chinese community. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science. 1992;24: 517-536.
114. Salgado de Snyder VN. Factors associated with acculturative stress and depressive symptomatology among married Mexican immigrant women. Psychology of Women Quarterly. 1987;11:475-488.
115. Jackson JS, Brown TN, Williams DR, Torres M, Sellers SL, Brown K. Racism and the physical and mental health status of African Americans: a thirteen year national panel study. Ethn Dis. 1996;6(1,2):132-147.
116. James SA. John Henryism and the health of African Americans. Cult Med Psychiatry. 1994;18:163-182.
117. Neighbors HW, Jackson JS, Broman C, Thompson E. Racism and the mental health of African Americans: The role of self and system blame. Eth Dis. 1996;6(1,2):167-175.
118. Cohen S, Kessler RC, Underwood LG. Measuring Stress. New York: Oxford University Press; 1995.
119. McEwen BS, Steller E. Stress and the individual. Arch Int Med. 1993;153:2093-2101.
120. Brandt AM. Racism and research: The case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Hastings Center Report. 1987;8(6):21-29.