Twenty years of research into Chlamydia-like organisms: A revolution in our understanding of the biology and pathogenicity of members of the phylum Chlamydiae

Pathogens and Disease

Volumn 73, Issue 1, 2015, Pages

  Taylor Brown, Alyce ^a   Vaughan, Lloyd ^b   Greub, Gilbert ^c   Timms, Peter ^a   Polkinghorne, Adam ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF THE SUNSHINE COAST   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH   (Switzerland)

^c UNIVERSITY OF LAUSANNE   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Amoeba; Bacterial pathogenesis; Chlamydiae; Genomics; Phylogeny

Indexed keywords

ABORTIVE AGENT;

ACTINOCHLAMYDIA; BACTERIAL GROWTH; BIOINFORMATICS; CELL CULTURE; CHLAMYDIA; CLAVICHLAMYDIA; DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE; DNA SEQUENCE; GENOMICS; HOST RANGE; HUMAN; MICROBIAL DIVERSITY; MICROMORPHOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PARACHLAMYDIA; PARILICHLAMYDIA; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOGENICITY; PHYLOGENY; PISCICHLAMYDIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASE; SHORT SURVEY; SIMILICHLAMYDIA; SIMKANIA NEGEVENSIS; TAXONOMY; WADDLIA CHONDROPHILA; ANIMAL; CHLAMYDIALES; CLASSIFICATION; GRAM NEGATIVE INFECTION; HISTORY; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MICROBIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; TRENDS; VETERINARY;

ANIMALS; BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; CHLAMYDIALES; ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY; GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 21ST CENTURY; HUMANS;

EID: 84943586362     PISSN: None     EISSN: 2049632X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftu009     Document Type: Short Survey

References (136)

1. Amann R, Springer N, Schonhuber W, et al. Obligate intracellular bacterial parasites of acanthamoebae related to Chlamydia spp. Appl Environ Microb 1997;63:115-21.
2. Bachmann NL, Fraser TA, Bertelli C, et al. Comparative genomics of koala, cattle and sheep strains of Chlamydia pecorum. BMC Genomics 2014;15:667.
3. Barkallah M, Gharbi Y, Hassena AB, et al. Survey of infectious etiologies of bovine abortion during mid-to late gestation in dairy herds. PLoS One 2014;9:e91549.
4. Baud D, Goy G, Gerber S, et al. Evidence of maternal-fetal transmission of Parachlamydia acanthamoebae. Emerg Infect Dis 2009;15:120-1.
5. Baud D, Goy G, Osterheld MC, et al. Waddlia chondrophila: from bovine abortion to human miscarriage. Clin Infect Dis 2011;52:1469-71.
6. Baud D, Goy G, Osterheld MC, et al. Role of Waddlia chondrophila placental infection in miscarriage. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20:460-4.
7. Baud D, Kebbi C, Kulling JP, et al. Seroprevalence of different Chlamydia-like organisms in an asymptomatic population. Clin Microbiol Infect 2009;15 (Suppl 2):213-5.
8. Baud D, Thomas V, Arafa A, et al. Waddlia chondrophila, a potential agent of human fetal death. Emerg Infect Dis 2007;13:1239-43.
9. Bebear C, de Barbeyrac B. Genital Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Clin Microbiol Infect 2009;15:4-10.
10. Bednar MM, Jorgensen I, Valdivia RH, et al. Chlamydia proteaselike activity factor (CPAF): characterization of proteolysis activity in vitro and development of a nanomolar affinity CPAF zymogen-derived inhibitor. Biochemistry 2011;50:7441-3.
11. Beeckman DS, Vanrompay DC. Zoonotic Chlamydophila psittaci infections from a clinical perspective. Clin Microbiol Infect 2009;15:11-7.
12. Bertelli C, Collyn F, Croxatto A, et al. The Waddlia genome: a window into chlamydial biology. PLoS One 2010;5:e10890.
13. Birtles RJ, Rowbotham TJ, Storey C, et al. Chlamydia-like obligate parasite of free-living amoebae. Lancet 1997;349:925-6.
14. Blumer S, Greub G, Waldvogel A, et al. Waddlia, Parachlamydia and Chlamydiaceae in bovine abortion. Vet Microbiol 2011;152:385-93.
15. Borel N, Ruhl S, Casson N, et al. Parachlamydia spp. and related Chlamydia-like organisms and bovine abortion. Emerg Infect Dis 2007;13:1904-7.
16. Camus A, Soto E, Berliner A, et al. Epitheliocystis hyperinfection in captive spotted eagle rays Aetobatus narinari associated with a novel Chlamydiales 16S rDNA signature sequence. Dis Aquat Organ 2013;104:13-21.
17. Casson N, Entenza JM, Borel N, et al. Murine model of pneumonia caused by Parachlamydia acanthamoebae. Microb Pathogenesis 2008;45:92-7.
18. Casson N, Entenza JM, Greub G. Serological cross-reactivity between different Chlamydia-like organisms. J Clin Microbiol 2007;45:234-6.
19. Casson N, Medico N, Bille J, et al. Parachlamydia acanthamoebae enters andmultiplies within pneumocytes and lung fibroblasts. Microbes Infect 2006;8:1294-300.
20. Chua PK, Corkill JE, Hooi PS, et al. Isolation of Waddlia malaysiensis, a novel intracellular bacterium, from fruit bat (Eonycteris spelaea). Emerg Infect Dis 2005;11:271-7.
21. Codony F, Fittipaldi M, Lopez E, et al. Well water as a possible source ofWaddlia chondrophila infections. Microbes Environ 2012;27:529-32.
22. Collingro A, Poppert S, Heinz E, et al. Recovery of an environmental Chlamydia strain from activated sludge by co-cultivation with Acanthamoeba sp. Microbiology 2005a;151:301-9.
23. Collingro A, Tischler P, Weinmaier T, et al. Unity in variety-the pan-genome of the Chlamydiae. Mol Biol Evol 2011;28:3253-70.
24. Collingro A, Toenshoff ER, Taylor MW, et al. 'Candidatus Protochlamydia amoebophila', an endosymbiont of Acanthamoeba spp. Int J Syst Evol Micr 2005b;55:1863-6.
25. Corsaro D, Greub G. Pathogenic potential of novel Chlamydiae and diagnostic approaches to infections due to these obligate intracellular bacteria. Clin Microbiol Rev 2006;19:283-97.
26. Corsaro D, Michel R, Walochnik J, et al. Saccamoeba lacustris, sp. nov. (Amoebozoa: Lobosea: Hartmannellidae), a new lobose amoeba, parasitized by the novel chlamydia 'Candidatus Metachlamydia lacustris' (Chlamydiae: Parachlamydiaceae). Eur J Protistol 2010;46:86-95.
27. Corsaro D, Muller KD, Wingender J, et al. 'Candidatus Mesochlamydia elodeae' (Chlamydiae: Parachlamydiaceae), a novel chlamydia parasite of free-living amoebae. Parasitol Res 2013;112:829-38.
28. Corsaro D, Thomas V, Goy G, et al. 'Candidatus Rhabdochlamydia crassificans', an intracellular bacterial pathogen of the cockroach Blatta orientalis (Insecta: Blattodea). Syst Appl Microbiol 2007;30:221-8.
29. Corsaro D, Valassina M, Venditti D. Increasing diversity within Chlamydiae. Crit Rev Microbiol 2003;29:37-78.
30. Corsaro D, Venditti D, Valassina M. New parachlamydial 16S rDNA phylotypes detected in human clinical samples. Res Microbiol 2002;153:563-7.
31. Corsaro D, Work TM. Candidatus Renichlamydia lutjani, a Gram-negative bacterium in internal organs of blue-striped snapper Lutjanus kasmira from Hawaii. Dis Aquat Organ 2012;98:249-54.
32. Croxatto A, Greub G. Early intracellular trafficking of Waddlia chondrophila in human macrophages. Microbiology 2010;156:340-55.
33. Croxatto A, Rieille N, Kernif T, et al. Presence of Chlamydiales DNA in ticks and fleas suggests that ticks are carriers of Chlamydiae. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2014;5:359-65.
34. Dilbeck PM, Evermann JF, Crawford TB, et al. Isolation of a previously undescribed rickettsia from an aborted bovine fetus. J Clin Microbiol 1990;28:814-6.
35. Dilbeck-Robertson P, McAllister MM, Bradway D, et al. Results of a new serologic test suggest an association of Waddlia chondrophila with bovine abortion. J Vet Diagn Invest 2003;15:568-9.
36. Donati M, Fiani N, Di Francesco A, et al. IgG and IgA response to Simkania negevensis in sera of patients with respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms. New Microbiol 2013;36:303-6.
37. Dowell SF, Peeling RW, Boman J, et al. Standardizing Chlamydia pneumoniae assays: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (USA) and the Laboratory Centre for Disease Control (Canada). Clin Infect Dis 2001;33:492-503.
38. Draghi A, 2nd, Bebak J, Daniels S, et al. Identification of 'Candidatus Piscichlamydia salmonis' in Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus during a survey of charr production facilities in North America. Dis Aquat Organ 2010;89:39-49.
39. Draghi A, 2nd, Bebak J, Popov VL, et al. Characterization of a Neochlamydia-like bacterium associated with epitheliocystis in cultured Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus. Dis Aquat Organ 2007;76:27-38.
40. Draghi A, 2nd, Popov VL, Kahl MM, et al. Characterization of 'Candidatus piscichlamydia salmonis' (order Chlamydiales), a chlamydia-like bacterium associated with epitheliocystis in farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). J Clin Microbiol 2004;42:5286-97.
41. Eugster M, Roten CA, Greub G. Analyses of six homologous proteins of Protochlamydia amoebophila UWE25 encoded by large GC-rich genes (lgr): a model of evolution and concatenation of leucine-rich repeats. BMC Evol Biol 2007;7:231.
42. Everett KD, Bush RM, Andersen AA. Emended description of the order Chlamydiales, proposal of Parachlamydiaceae fam. nov. and Simkaniaceae fam. nov., each containing one monotypic genus, revised taxonomy of the family Chlamydiaceae, including a new genus and five new species, and standards for the identification of organisms. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1999;49(Pt 2):415-40.
43. Everett KD, Hornung LJ, Andersen AA. Rapid detection of the Chlamydiaceae and other families in the order Chlamydiales: three PCR tests. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:575-80.
44. Everett KD, Thao M, Horn M, et al. Novel chlamydiae inwhiteflies and scale insects: endosymbionts 'Candidatus Fritschea bemisiae' strain Falk and 'Candidatus Fritschea eriococci' strain Elm. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2005;55:1581-7.
45. Fehr A, Walther E, Schmidt-Posthaus H, et al. Candidatus Syngnamydia venezia, a novel member of the phylum Chlamydiae from the broad nosed pipefish, Syngnathus typhle. PLoS One 2013;8:e70853.
46. Friedman MG, Galil A, Greenberg S, et al. Seroprevalence of IgG antibodies to the chlamydia-likemicroorganism 'Simkania Z' by ELISA. Epidemiol Infect 1999;122:117-23.
47. Friedman MG, Kahane S, Dvoskin B, et al. Detection of Simkania negevensis by culture, PCR, and serology in respiratory tract infection in Cornwall, UK. J Clin Pathol 2006;59:331-3.
48. Fritsche TR, Gautom RK, Seyedirashti S, et al. Occurrence of bacterial endosymbionts in Acanthamoeba spp. isolated from corneal and environmental specimens and contact lenses. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:1122-6.
49. Fukushi H, Hirai K. Proposal of Chlamydia pecorum sp. nov. for Chlamydia strains derived from ruminants. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1992;42:306-8.
50. Goy G, Greub G. Antibiotic susceptibility of Waddlia chondrophila in Acanthamoeba castellanii amoebae. Antimicrob Agents Ch 2009;53:2663-6.
51. Greub G. Parachlamydia acanthamoebae, an emerging agent of pneumonia. Clin Microbiol Infect 2009;15:18-28.
52. Greub G, Boyadjiev I, La Scola B, et al. Serological hint suggesting that Parachlamydiaceae are agents of pneumonia in polytraumatized intensive care patients. Ann NY Acad Sci 2003;990:311-9.
53. Greub G, Collyn F, Guy L, et al. A genomic island present along the bacterial chromosome of the Parachlamydiaceae UWE25, an obligate amoebal endosymbiont, encodes a potentially functional F-like conjugative DNA transfer system. BMC Microbiol 2004;4:48.
54. Greub G, Kebbi-Beghdadi C, Bertelli C, et al. High throughput sequencing and proteomics to identify immunogenic proteins of a new pathogen: the dirty genome approach. PLoS One 2009;4:e8423.
55. Greub G, La Scola B, Raoult D. Parachlamydia acanthamoeba is endosymbiotic or lytic for Acanthamoeba polyphaga depending on the incubation temperature. Ann NY Acad Sci 2003;990:628-34.
56. Greub G, Mege JL, Raoult D. Parachlamydia acanthamoebae enters andmultiplies within human macrophages and induces their apoptosis [corrected]. Infect Immun 2003;71:5979-85.
57. Greub G, Raoult D. Crescent bodies of Parachlamydia acanthamoeba and its life cycle within Acanthamoeba polyphaga: an electron micrograph study. Appl Environ Microb 2002;68:3076-84.
58. Greub G, Raoult D. History of the ADP/ATP-translocase-encoding gene, a parasitism gene transferred from a Chlamydiales ancestor to plants 1 billion years ago. Appl Environ Microb 2003;69:5530-5.
59. Griffiths E, Petrich AK, Gupta RS. Conserved indels in essential proteins that are distinctive characteristics of Chlamydiales and provide novel means for their identification. Microbiology 2005;151:2647-57.
60. Habyarimana F, Al-Khodor S, Kalia A, et al. Role for the Ankyrin eukaryotic-like genes of Legionella pneumophila in parasitism of protozoan hosts and human macrophages. Environ Microbiol 2008;10:1460-74.
61. Haider S, Collingro A, Walochnik J, et al. Chlamydia-like bacteria in respiratory samples of community-acquired pneumonia patients. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2008;281:198-202.
62. Heinz E, Pichler P, Heinz C, et al. Proteomic analysis of the outer membrane of Protochlamydia amoebophila elementary bodies. Proteomics 2010;10:4363-76.
63. Heinz E, Tischler P, Rattei T, et al. Comprehensive in silico prediction and analysis of chlamydial outer membrane proteins reflects evolution and life style of the Chlamydiae. BMC Genomics 2009;10:634.
64. Hoffman GL, Dunbar CE, Wolf K, et al. Epitheliocystis, a new infectious disease of the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus). A Van Leeuw 1969;35:146-58.
65. Horn M, Collingro A, Schmitz-Esser S, et al. Illuminating the evolutionary history of chlamydiae. Science 2004;304:728-30.
66. Horn M, Wagner M, Muller KD, et al. Neochlamydia hartmannellae gen. nov., sp. nov. (Parachlamydiaceae), an endoparasite of the amoeba Hartmannella vermiformis. Microbiology 2000;146(Pt 5):1231-9.
67. Humphrys MS, Creasy T, Sun Y, et al. Simultaneous transcriptional profiling of bacteria and their host cells. PLoS One 2013;8:e80597.
68. Husain S, Kahane S, Friedman MG, et al. Simkania negevensis in bronchoalveolar lavage of lung transplant recipients: a possible association with acute rejection. Transplantation 2007;83:138-43.
69. Ishida K, Sekizuka T, Hayashida K, et al. Amoebal endosymbiont Neochlamydia genome sequence illuminates the bacterial role in the defense of the host amoebae against Legionella pneumophila. PLoS One 2014;9:e95166.
70. Israelsson O. Chlamydial symbionts in the enigmatic Xenoturbella (Deuterostomia). J Invertebr Pathol 2007;96:213-20.
71. Jacquier N, Frandi A, Pillonel T, et al. Cell wall precursors are required to organize the chlamydial division septum. Nat Commun 2014;5:3578.
72. Jelocnik M, Frentiu FD, Timms P, et al. Multilocus sequence analysis provides insights into molecular epidemiology of Chlamydia pecorum infections in Australian sheep, cattle, and koalas. J Clin Microbiol 2013;51:2625-32.
73. Kahane S, Dvoskin B, Friedman MG. The role of monocyte/macrophages as vehicles of dissemination of Simkania negevensis: an in vitro simulation model. FEMS Immunol Med Mic 2008;52:219-27.
74. Kahane S, Dvoskin B, Mathias M, et al. Infection of Acanthamoeba polyphaga with Simkania negevensis and S. negevensis survival within amoebal cysts. Appl Environ Microb 2001;67:4789-95.
75. Kahane S, Everett KD, Kimmel N, et al. Simkania negevensis strain ZT: growth, antigenic and genome characteristics. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1999;49(Pt 2):815-20.
76. Kahane S, Fruchter D, Dvoskin B, et al. Versatility of Simkania negevensis infection in vitro and induction of host cell inflammatory cytokine response. J Infect 2007;55:e13-21.
77. Kahane S, Gonen R, Sayada C, et al. Description and partial characterization of a new Chlamydia-like microorganism. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1993;109:329-33.
78. Kahane S, Greenberg D, Friedman MG, et al. High prevalence of 'Simkania Z,' a novel Chlamydia-like bacterium, in infants with acute bronchiolitis. J Infect Dis 1998;177:1425-9.
79. Kahane S, Greenberg D, Newman N, et al. Domestic water supplies as a possible source of infection with Simkania. J Infect 2007;54:75-81.
80. Kahane S, Metzer E, Friedman MG. Evidence that the novel microorganism 'Z' may belong to a new genus in the family Chlamydiaceae. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1995;126:203-7.
81. Kahane S, Platzner N, Dvoskin B, et al. Evidence for the presence of Simkania negevensis in drinking water and in reclaimed wastewater in Israel. Appl Environ Microb 2004;70:3346-51.
82. Kalman S, Mitchell W, Marathe R, et al. Comparative genomes of Chlamydia pneumoniae and C. trachomatis. Nat Genet 1999;21:385-9.
83. Karlsen M, Nylund A, Watanabe K, et al. Characterization of 'Candidatus Clavochlamydia salmonicola': an intracellular bacterium infecting salmonid fish. Environ Microbiol 2008;10:208-18.
84. Kebbi-Beghdadi C, Batista C, Greub G. Permissivity of fish cell lines to three Chlamydia-related bacteria: Waddlia chondrophila, Estrella lausannensis and Parachlamydia acanthamoebae. FEMS Immunol Med Mic 2011;63:339-45.
85. Kebbi-Beghdadi C, Cisse O, Greub G. Permissivity of vero cells, human pneumocytes and human endometrial cells to Waddlia chondrophila. Microbes Infect 2011;13:566-74.
86. Kebbi-Beghdadi C, Greub G. Importance of amoebae as a tool to isolate amoeba-resisting microorganisms and for their ecology and evolution: the Chlamydia paradigm. Environ Microbiol Rep 2014;6:309-24.
87. Kebbi-Beghdadi C, Lienard J, Uyttebroeck F, et al. Identification of immunogenic proteins of Waddlia chondrophila. PLoS One 2012;7:e28605.
88. Kocan KM, Crawford TB, Dilbeck PM, et al. Development of a rickettsia isolated from an aborted bovine fetus. J Bacteriol 1990;172:5949-55.
89. Kostanjsek R, Strus J, Drobne D, et al. 'Candidatus Rhabdochlamydia porcellionis', an intracellular bacterium from the hepatopancreas of the terrestrial isopod Porcellio scaber (Crustacea: Isopoda). Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2004;54:543-9.
90. Lagkouvardos I, Weinmaier T, Lauro FM, et al. Integrating metagenomic and amplicon databases to resolve the phylogenetic and ecological diversity of the Chlamydiae. ISME J 2014;8:115-25.
91. Lamoth F, Aeby S, Schneider A, et al. Parachlamydia and Rhabdochlamydia in premature neonates. Emerg Infect Dis 2009;15:2072-5.
92. Lamoth F, Jaton K, Vaudaux B, et al. Parachlamydia and Rhabdochlamydia: emerging agents of community-acquired respiratory infections in children. Clin Infect Dis 2011;53: 500-1.
93. Lane BJ, Mutchler C, Al Khodor S, et al. Chlamydial entry involves TARP binding of guanine nucleotide exchange factors. PLoS Pathog 2008;4:e1000014.
94. Lieberman D, Kahane S, Lieberman D, et al. Pneumonia with serological evidence of acute infection with the Chlamydialike microorganism 'Z'. Am J Resp Crit Care 1997;156:578-82.
95. Lienard J, Croxatto A, Aeby S, et al. Development of a new Chlamydiales-specific real-time PCR and its application to respiratory clinical samples. J Clin Microbiol 2011a;49:2637-42.
96. Lienard J, Croxatto A, Prod'hom G, et al. Estrella lausannensis, a new star in the Chlamydiales order. Microbes Infect 2011b;13:1232-41.
97. Lohr M, Prohl A, Ostermann C, et al. A bovine model of a respiratory Parachlamydia acanthamoebae infection. Pathog Dis 2014 doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2014.07.009.
98. Mehlitz A, Karunakaran K, Herweg JA, et al. The chlamydial organism Simkania negevensis forms ER vacuole contact sites and inhibits ER-stress. Cell Microbiol 2014;16: 1224-43.
99. Meijer A, Roholl PJ, Ossewaarde JM, et al. Molecular evidence for association of Chlamydiales bacteria with epitheliocystis in leafy seadragon (Phycodurus eques), silver perch (Bidyanus bidyanus), and barramundi (Lates calcarifer). Appl Environ Microb 2006;72:284-90.
100. Mitchell SO, Steinum T, Rodger H, et al. Epitheliocystis in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., farmed in fresh water in Ireland is associated with 'Candidatus Clavochlamydia salmonicola' infection. J Fish Dis 2010;33:665-73.
101. Niemi S, Greub G, Puolakkainen M. Chlamydia-related bacteria in respiratory samples in Finland. Microbes Infect 2011;13:824-7.
102. Nunes A, Gomes JP. Evolution, phylogeny, and molecular epidemiology of Chlamydia. Infect Genet Evol 2014;23:49-64.
103. Ossewaarde JM, Meijer A. Molecular evidence for the existence of additional members of the order Chlamydiales. Microbiology 1999;145(Pt 2):411-7.
104. Plehn M. Praktikum der Fischkrankheiten. Handbuch der Binnenfischerei Mitteleuropas Schweizerbart, Stuttgart 1920.
105. Polkinghorne A, Hanger J, Timms P. Recent advances in understanding the biology, epidemiology and control of chlamydial infections in koalas. Vet Microbiol 2013;165:214-23.
106. Polkinghorne A, Schmidt-Posthaus H, Meijer A, et al. Novel Chlamydiales associated with epitheliocystis in a leopard shark Triakis semifasciata. Dis Aquat Organ 2010;91:75-81.
107. Psomopoulos FE, Siarkou VI, Papanikolaou N, et al. The chlamydiales pangenome revisited: structural stability and functional coherence. Genes (Basel) 2012;3:291-319.
108. Radek R. Light and electron microscopic study of a Rickettsiella species from the cockroach Blatta orientalis. J Invertebr Pathol 2000;76:249-56.
109. Read TD, Brunham RC, Shen C, et al. Genome sequences of Chlamydia trachomatis MoPn and Chlamydia pneumoniae AR39. Nucleic Acids Res 2000;28:1397-406.
110. Roulis E, Polkinghorne A, Timms P. Chlamydia pneumoniae: modern insights into an ancient pathogen. Trends Microbiol 2013;21:120-8.
111. Ruhl S, Casson N, Kaiser C, et al. Evidence for Parachlamydia in bovine abortion. Vet Microbiol 2009;135:169-74.
112. Ruhl S, Goy G, Casson N, et al. Parachlamydia acanthamoebae infection and abortion in small ruminants. Emerg Infect Dis 2008;14:1966-8.
113. Rurangirwa FR, Dilbeck PM, Crawford TB, et al. Analysis of the 16S rRNA gene of micro-organism WSU 86-1044 from an aborted bovine foetus reveals that it is a member of the order Chlamydiales: proposal of Waddliaceae fam. nov., Waddlia chondrophila gen. nov., sp. nov. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1999;49(Pt 2): 577-81.
114. Rusconi B, Lienard J, Aeby S, et al. Crescent and star shapes of members of the Chlamydiales order: impact of fixative methods. A Van Leeuw 2013;104:521-32.
115. Sampo A, Matsuo J, Yamane C, et al. High-temperature adapted primitive Protochlamydia found in Acanthamoeba isolated from a hot spring can growin immortalized human epithelial HEp-2 cells. Environ Microbiol 2014;16:486-97.
116. Schmidt-Posthaus H, Polkinghorne A, Nufer L, et al. A natural freshwater origin for two chlamydial species, Candidatus Piscichlamydia salmonis and Candidatus Clavochlamydia salmonicola, causing mixed infections in wild brown trout (Salmo trutta). Environ Microbiol 2012;14:2048-57.
117. Seth-Smith HM, Harris SR, Scott P, et al. Generating whole bacterial genome sequences of low-abundance species from complex samples with IMS-MDA. Nat Protoc 2013a;8: 2404-12.
118. Seth-Smith HM, Harris SR, Skilton RJ, et al. Whole-genome sequences of Chlamydia trachomatis directly from clinical samples without culture. Genome Res 2013b;23:855-66.
119. Soldati G, Lu ZH, Vaughan L, et al. Detection of mycobacteria and chlamydiae in granulomatous inflammation of reptiles: a retrospective study. Vet Pathol 2004;41:388-97.
120. Steigen A, Nylund A, Karlsbakk E, et al. 'Cand. Actinochlamydia clariae' gen. nov., sp. nov., a unique intracellular bacterium causing epitheliocystis in catfish (Clarias gariepinus) in Uganda. PLoS One 2013;8:e66840.
121. Stephens RS, Kalman S, Lammel C, et al. Genome sequence of an obligate intracellular pathogen of humans: Chlamydia trachomatis. Science 1998;282:754-9.
122. Stride MC, Polkinghorne A, Miller TL, et al. Molecular characterization of 'Candidatus Similichlamydia latridicola' gen. nov., sp. nov. (Chlamydiales: 'Candidatus Parilichlamydiaceae'), a novel Chlamydia-like epitheliocystis agent in the striped trumpeter, Latris lineata (Forster). Appl Environ Microb 2013a;79:4914-20.
123. Stride MC, Polkinghorne A, Miller TL, et al. Molecular characterization of 'Candidatus Parilichlamydia carangidicola', a novel Chlamydia-like epitheliocystis agent in yellowtail kingfish, Seriola lalandi (Valenciennes), and the proposal of a new family, 'Candidatus Parilichlamydiaceae' fam. nov. (order Chlamydiales). Appl Environ Microb 2013b;79:1590-7.
124. Stride MC, Polkinghome A, Nowak BF. Chlamydial infections of fish: diverse pathogens and emerging causes of disease in aquaculture species. Vet Microbiol 2014;171:258-66.
125. Stride MC, Polkinghorne A, Powell MD, et al. 'Candidatus Similichlamydia laticola', a novel Chlamydia-like agent of epitheliocystis in seven consecutive cohorts of farmed Australian barramundi, Lates calcarifer (Bloch). PLoS One 2013c;8:e82889.
126. Taylor HR, Burton MJ, Haddad D, et al. Trachoma. Lancet 2014 doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62182-0.
127. Thao ML, Baumann L, Hess JM, et al. Phylogenetic evidence for two new insect-associated Chlamydia of the family Simkaniaceae. Curr Microbiol 2003;47:46-50.
128. Thomas V, Casson N, Greub G. Criblamydia sequanensis, a new intracellular Chlamydiales isolated from Seine river water using amoebal co-culture. Environ Microbiol 2006;8: 2125-35.
129. Tosetti N, Croxatto A, Greub G. Amoebae as a tool to isolate new bacterial species, to discover new virulence factors and to study the host-pathogen interactions. Microb Pathog 2014 Bio:1m0.1h0a1r6d/j.mWic,paPtohl.2k0in14g.0h7o.0r0n9e.
130. von Bomhard W, Polkinghorne A, Lu ZH, et al. Detection of novel chlamydiae in cats with ocular disease. Am J Vet Res 2003;64:1421-8.
131. Wang Y, Kahane S, Cutcliffe LT, et al. Development of a transformation system for Chlamydia trachomatis: restoration of glycogen biosynthesis by acquisition of a plasmid shuttle vector. PLoS Pathog 2011;7:e1002258.
132. Wheelhouse N, Coyle C, Barlow PG, et al. Waddlia chondrophila infects andmultiplies in ovine trophoblast cells stimulating an inflammatory immune response. PLoS One 2014;9:e102386.
133. Wheelhouse N, Howie F, Gidlow J, et al. Involvement of Parachlamydia in bovine abortions in Scotland. Vet J 2012;193:586-8.
134. Wheelhouse N, Longbottom D, Willoughby K. Chlamydia in cases of cattle pneumonia in Scotland. Vet Rec 2013;172:110.
135. Wheelhouse N, Sait M, Gidlow J, et al. Molecular detection of Chlamydia-like organisms in cattle drinking water. Vet Microbiol 2011;152:196-9.
136. Zachary A, Paperna I. Epitheliocystis disease in the striped bass Morone saxatilis from the Chesapeake Bay. Can J Microbiol 1977;23:1404-14.