The Stigma Complex

Annual Review of Sociology

Volumn 41, Issue , 2015, Pages 87-116

  Pescosolido, Bernice A ^a   Martin, Jack K ^b  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

connectedness; discrimination; disparities; mental illness; prejudice; race ethnicity; sexual orientation

Indexed keywords

EID: 84939615370     PISSN: 03600572     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145702     Document Type: Article

References (258)

1. Abadía-Barrero CE, Castro A. 2006. Experiences of stigma and access to HAART in children and adolescents living with HIV/AIDS in Brazil. Soc. Sci. Med. 62:1219-28
2. Alvidrez J, Snowden LR, Kaiser DM. 2008. The experience of stigma among Black mental health consumers. J. Health Care Poor Underserved 19:874-93
3. Anderson M, Elam G, Gerver S, Solarin I. 2008. HIV/AIDS-related stigma and discrimination: accounts of HIV-positive Caribbean people in the United Kingdom. Soc. Sci. Med. 67:790-98
4. Angermeyer MC, Matschinger H. 2005. Causal beliefs and attitudes to people with schizophrenia. Br. J. Psychiatry 186:331-34
5. Angermeyer MC, Schulze B, Dietrich S. 2003. Courtesy stigma: a focus group study of relatives of schizophrenia patients. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 38:593-602
6. Argo JJ, Main KJ. 2008. Stigma by association in coupon redemption: looking cheap because of others. J. Consum. Res. 35:559-72
7. Asbring P, Narvanen AL. 2002. Women's experiences of stigma in relation to chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. Qual. Health Res. 12:148-60
8. Austin JK, Shafer JB. 2002. Epilepsy familiarity, knowledge, and perceptions of stigma: report from a survey of adolescents in the general population. Epilepsy Behav. 3:368-75
9. Ay P, Save D, FidanogluO. 2006. Does stigma concerning mental disorders differ through medical education? Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 41:63-67
10. Baral SC, Karki DK, Newell JN. 2007. Causes of stigma and discrimination associated with tuberculosis in Nepal: a qualitative study. BMC Public Health 16:211
11. Barry CL, McGinty EE, Pescosolido BA, GoldmanHH. 2015. Stigma, discrimination, treatment effectiveness, and policy: public views about drug addiction and mental illness. Psychiatr. Serv. 65(10):1269-72
12. Bascompte J. 2009. Disentangling the web of life. Science 325:416-19
13. Bayer R, Stuber J. 2006. Tobacco control, stigma, and public health: rethinking the relations. Am. J. Public Health 96:47-50
14. Behrens A. 2004. "Less than the average citizen": stigma, role transition and the civic reintegration of convicted felons. In After Crime and Punishment: Pathways to Offender Reintegration, ed. SM Maruna, R Immarigeon, pp. 261-93. Portland, OR:Willan
15. Betancourt TS, Agnew-Blais J, Gilman SE. 2010. Past horrors, present struggles: the role of stigma in the association between war experiences and psychosocial adjustment among former child soldiers in Sierra Leone. Soc. Sci. Med. 70:17-26
16. Bobo L, Kluegel JR, Smith RA. 1997. Laissez faire racism: the crystallization of a "kinder, gentler" anti-Black ideology. In Racial Attitudes in the 1990s: Continuity and Change, ed. SA Tuch, JK Martin, pp. 15-44. Greenwood, CT: Praeger
17. Bockting WO, Miner MH, Swinburne Romine RE, Hamilton A, Coleman E. 2013. Stigma, mental health, and resilience in an online sample of the US transgender population. Am. J. Public Health 103:943-51
18. Bogardus ES. 1959. Social Distance. Yellow Springs, OH: Antioch Press
19. Boyd Ritsher J, Otilingam PG, GrajalesM. 2003. Internalized stigma ofmental illness: psychometric properties of a new measure. Psychiatry Res. 121:31-49
20. Brohan E, Elgie R, Sartorius N, Thornicroft G, GAMIAN-Europe Study Group. 2010. Self-stigma, empowerment and perceived discrimination among people with schizophrenia in 14 European countries: the GAMIAN-Europe study. Schizophr. Res. 122:232-38
21. Brown L, Trujillo L, Macintyre K. 2003. Interventions to reduce HIV/AIDS stigma:What have we learned? AIDS Educ. Prev. 15(1):49-69
22. Brown P. 1995. Naming and framing: the social construction of diagnosis and illness. J. Health Soc. Behav. 1995(Spec. No.):34-52
23. Burns J. 2009. Dispelling a myth: Developing world poverty, inequality, violence and social fragmentation are not good for outcome in schizophrenia. Afr. J. Psychiatry 12:200-205
24. Byrne A, Carr D. 2005. Caught in the cultural lag: the stigma of singlehood. Psychol. Inq. 16:84-91
25. Carpenter S. 2005. Hitting the bricks. Observer 18:12-16
26. Carter R, SatcherD, CoelhoT. 2013. Addressing stigma through social inclusion. Am. J. PublicHealth 103:773
27. Castro A, Farmer P. 2005. Understanding and addressing AIDS-related stigma: from anthropological theory to clinical practice in Haiti. Am. J. Public Health 95:53-59
28. Chang C-K, Hayes RD, Perera G, Broadbent MTM, Fernandes AC, et al. 2011. Life expectancy at birth for people with serious mental illness and other major disorders from a secondary mental health care case register in London. PLOS ONE 6:e19590
29. Chaudoir SR, Fisher JD, Simoni JM. 2011. Understanding HIV disclosure: a review and application of the disclosure processes model. Soc. Sci. Med. 72:1618-29
30. Chew-Graham CA, Rogers A, Yassin N. 2003. "I wouldn't want it on my CV or their records": medical students' experiences of help-seeking for mental health problems. Med. Educ. 37:873-80
31. ClarkHJ, Lindner G, Armistead L, Austin BJ. 2004. Stigma, disclosure, and psychological functioning among HIV-infected and non-infected African-American women. Women Health 38:57-71
32. Coleman JS. 1986. Social theory, social research, and a theory of action. Am. J. Sociol. 91:1309-35
33. Collins PY, vonUnger H, Armbrister A. 2008. Church ladies, good girls, and locas: stigma and the intersection of gender, ethnicity, mental illness, and sexuality in relation to HIV risk. Soc. Sci. Med. 67:389-97
34. Compton M, Esterberg M, McGee R, Kotwicki RJ, Oliva JR. 2006. Brief reports: crisis intervention team training: changes in knowledge, attitudes, and stigma related to schizophrenia. Psychiatr. Serv. 57:1199-202
35. Conner KO, Koeskeb G, Brown C. 2009. Racial differences in attitudes toward professional mental health treatment: the mediating effect of stigma. J. Gerontol. Soc. Work 52:695-712
36. Corrigan PW. 2007. How clinical diagnosis might exacerbate the stigma of mental illness. Soc. Work 52:31-39
37. Corrigan PW, Kleinlein P. 2007. The impact of mental illness stigma. In On the Stigma of Mental Illness, ed. PW Corrigan, pp. 11-44. Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc
38. Corrigan PW, Kuwabara SA, O'Shaughnessy J. 2009. The public stigma of mental illness and drug addiction: findings from a stratified random sample. J. Soc. Work 9:139-47
39. Corrigan PW, Markowitz FE, Watson AC. 2004. Structural levels ofmental illness stigma and discrimination. Schizophr. Bull. 30:481-91
40. Corrigan PW, Markowitz FE, Watson AC, Rowan D, Kubiak MA. 2003. An attribution model of public discrimination towards persons with mental illness. J. Health Soc. Behav. 44:162-79
41. Corrigan PW, Miller FE. 2004. Shame, blame, and contamination: a review of the impact of mental illness stigma on family members. J. Mental Health 13:537-48
42. Corrigan PW, Rao D. 2013. On the self-stigma of mental illness: stages, disclosure, and strategies for change. Can. J. Psychiatry 57:464-69
43. CorriganPW, River LP, LundinRK, Penn DL, Uphoff-Wasowski K, et al. 2001. Three strategies for changing attributions about severe mental illness. Schizophr. Bull. 27:187-95
44. Corrigan PW, Watson AC, Barr L. 2006. The self-stigma of mental illness: implications for self-esteem and self-efficacy. J. Soc. Clin. Psychol. 25:875-84
45. Corrigan PW, Watson AC, Heyrman ML, Warpinski A, Gracia G, et al. 2005. Structural stigma in state legislation. Psychiatr. Serv. 56:557-63
46. Couture S, Penn DL. 2003. Interpersonal contact and the stigma of mental illness: a review of the literature. J. Mental Health 12:291-305
47. Cresswell M. 2005. Psychiatric "survivors" and testimonies of self-harm. Soc. Sci. Med. 61:1668-77
48. Cvinar JG. 2005. Do suicide survivors suffer social stigma: a review of the literature. Perspect. Psychiatr. C 41:14-21
49. Davidson JD. 2005. Contesting stigma and contested emotions: personal experience and public perception of specific phobias. Soc. Sci. Med. 61:2155-64
50. De Boer HM, MulaM, Sander JW. 2008. The global burden and stigma of epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 12:540-46
51. DeaconH. 2006. Towards a sustainable theory of health-related stigma: lessons from theHIV/AIDS literature. J. Community App. Soc. Psychol. 16:418-25
52. DeJordy R. 2008. Just passing through: stigma, passing, and identity decoupling in the work place. Group Organ. Manag. 33:504-31
53. Dembling BP, Chen DT, Vachon L. 1999. Life expectancy and causes of death in a population treated for serious mental illness. Psychiatr. Serv. 50:1036-42
54. Devers CE, Dewett T, Mishina Y, Belsito CA. 2009. A general theory of organizational stigma. Organ. Sci. 20:154-71
55. Dinos S, Stevens S, Serfaty M, Weich S, King M. 2004. Stigma: the feelings and experiences of 46 people with mental illness. Br. J. Psychiatry 184:176-81
56. Donkor ES, Sandall J. 2007. The impact of perceived stigma and mediating social factors on infertility-related stress among women seeking infertility treatment in Southern Ghana. Soc. Sci. Med. 65:1683-94
57. Dunn LB, Hammond KAG, Roberts LW. 2009. Delaying care, avoiding stigma: residents' attitudes toward obtaining personal health care. Acad. Med. 84(2):242-50
58. Ellison MA, Hall JE. 2003. Social stigma and compounded losses: quality-of-life issues for multiple-birth families. Fertil. Steril. 80:405-14
59. Emlet CA. 2006. "You're awfully old to have this disease": experiences of stigma and ageism in adults 50 years and older living with HIV/AIDS. Gerontologist 46:781-90
60. Estroff SE, Penn DL, Toporek JR. 2004. From stigma to discrimination: an analysis of community efforts to reduce the negative consequences of having a psychiatric disorder and label. Schizophr. Bull. 30:493-509
61. Evans-Lacko S, Brohan E, Mojtabai R, Thornicroft G. 2011. Association between public views of mental illness and self-stigma among individuals with mental illness in 14 European countries. Psychol. Med. 42(8):1741-52
62. Factor R, Kawachi I, WilliamsDR. 2011. Understanding high-risk behavior among non-dominantminorities: a social resistance framework. Soc. Sci. Med. 73:1292-301
63. Factor R, Williams DR, Kawachi I. 2013. Social resistance framework for understanding high-risk behavior among nondominant minorities: preliminary evidence. Am. J. Public Health 103:2245-51
64. Farrell AE. 2011. Fat Shame: Stigma and the Fat Body in American Culture. New York: New York Univ. Press
65. FarrugiaD. 2009. Exploring stigma: medical knowledge and the stigmatisation of parents of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Sociol. Health Illn. 31:1011-27
66. Fiske S. 2011. Envy Up, Scorn Down: How Status Divides Us. New York: Russell Sage Found
67. Franz L, Carter T, Leiner AS, Bergner E, Thompson NJ, Compton MT. 2010. Stigma and treatment delay in first-episode psychosis: a grounded theory study. Early Interv. Psychiatry 4:47-56
68. Fredrickson GM. 1971. The Black Image in theWhite Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914. New York: Harper &Row
69. Garcia SM, Hallahan M, Rosenthal R. 2007. Poor expression: concealing social class stigma. Basic Appl. Soc. Psychol. 29:99-107
70. Gary FA. 2005. Stigma: barrier to mental health care among ethnic minorities. Issues Mental Health Nurs. 26:979-99
71. Genberg BL, Hlavka Z, Konda KA, Maman S, Chariyalertsak S, et al. 2009. A comparison of HIV/AIDSrelated stigma in four countries: negative attitudes and perceived acts of discrimination towards people living with HIV/AIDS. Soc. Sci. Med. 68:2279-87
72. Gibson LE, Leitenberg H. 2001. The impact of child sexual abuse and stigma on methods of coping with sexual assault among undergraduate women. Child Abuse Negl. 25:1343-61
73. Gluszek A, Dovidio JF. 2010. The way they speak: a social psychological perspective on the stigma of nonnative accents in communication. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 14:214-37
74. Goffman E. 1961. Asylums. Garden City, NY: Anchor
75. Goffman E. 1963. Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
76. Granberg EM. 2011. "Now my 'old self ' is thin." Stigma exits after weight loss. Soc. Psychol. Q. 74:29-52
77. Gray DE. 2002. "Everybody just freezes. Everybody is just embarrassed": felt and enacted stigma among parents of children with high functioning autism. Sociol. Health Illn. 24:734-49
78. Greaves L, Oliffe JL, Ponic P, Kelly MT, Bottorff JL. 2010. Unclean fathers, responsible men: smoking, stigma and fatherhood. Health Sociol. Rev. 19:522-33
79. Green SE. 2003. "What do you mean, 'what's wrong with her?'": stigma and the lives of families of children with disabilities. Soc. Sci. Med. 57:1361-74
80. Greene-Shortridge TM, Britt TW, Andrew C. 2007. The stigma of mental health problems in the military. Mil. Med. 172:157-61
81. Griffiths KM, Nakane Y, Christensen H, Yoshioka K, Jorm AF, NakaneH. 2006. Stigma in response to mental disorders: a comparison of Australia and Japan. BMC Psychiatry 6:21
82. Grollman EA. 2012. Multiple forms of perceived discrimination and health among adolescents and young adults. J. Health Soc. Behav. 53:199-214
83. Guyll M, Madon S, Prieto L, Scherr KC. 2010. The potential roles of self-fulfilling prophecies: stigma consciousness, and stereotype threat in linking Latino/a ethnicity and educational outcomes. J. Soc. Issues 66:113-30
84. Hansen H, Bourgois P, Drucker E. 2014. Pathologizing poverty: new forms of diagnosis, disability, and structural stigma under welfare reform. Soc. Sci. Med. 103:76-83
85. Hartwell S. 2004. Triple stigma: persons with mental illness and substance abuse problems in the criminal justice system. Crim. Justice Policy Rev. 15:84-99
86. Haslam N. 2006. Dehumanization: an integrative review. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 10:252-64
87. Hatzenbuehler ML. 2009. How does sexual minority stigma "get under the skin"? A psychological mediation framework. Psychol. Bull. 135:707-30
88. Hatzenbuehler ML, Phelan JC, Link BG. 2013. Stigma as a fundamental cause of population health inequalities. Am. J. Public Health 103:813-21
89. Henning-Smith C, Shippee TP, McAlpine D, Hardeman R, Farah F. 2013. Stigma, discrimination, or symptomatology differences in self-reported mental health between US-born and Somalia-born black Americans. Am. J. Public Health 103:861-67
90. HerekGM. 2004. Beyond "Homophobia": Thinking About Sexual Prejudice and Stigma in the Twenty-First Century. New York: Springer
91. Hertzman C, Boyce T. 2010. How experience gets under the skin to create gradients in developmental health. Annu. Rev. Public Health 31:329-47
92. Heuer CA, McClure KJ, Puhl RM. 2011. Obesity stigma in online news: a visual content analysis. J. Health Commun. 15:1-12
93. Hinshaw SP. 2006. TheMark of Shame: Stigma ofMental Illness and an Agenda for Change. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
94. Horch JD, Hodgins DC. 2008. Public stigma of disordered gambling: social distance, dangerousness, and familiarity. J. Soc. Clin. Psychol. 27:505-28
95. Hung H. 2004. The politics of SARS: containing the perils of globalization by more globalization. Asian Perspect. 28:19-44
96. Hyman HH, Sheatsley PB. 1956. Attitudes on integration. Sci. Am. 195:35-39
97. Inzlicht M, McKay L, Aronson J. 2006. Stigma as ego depletion: how being the target of prejudice affects self-control. Psychol. Sci. 17:262-69
98. Jacoby A, Austin JK. 2007. Social stigma for adults and children with epilepsy. Epilepsia 48:6-9
99. Juniarti N, Evans D. 2011. A qualitative review: the stigma of tuberculosis. J. Clin. Nurs. 20:1961-70
100. Kalichman S, Simbayi LC. 2003. HIV testing attitudes, AIDS stigma, and voluntary HIV counselling and testing in a black township in Cape Town, South Africa. Sex. Transm. Infect. 79:442-47
101. Kanter JW, Rusch LC, Busch AM, Sedivy SK. 2008. Validation of the Behavioral Activation for Depression Scale (BADS) in a community sample with elevated depressive symptoms. J. Psychopathol. Behav. 31:36-42
102. Keene DE, Padilla MB. 2010. Race, class and the stigma of place: moving to "opportunity" in eastern Iowa. Health Place 16:1216-23
103. Kelaher M, Warr DJ, Feldman P, Tacticos T. 2010. Living in "Birdsville": exploring the impact of neighbourhood stigma on health. Health Place 16:381-88
104. Kelly BD. 2006. The power gap: freedom, power, and mental illness. Soc. Sci. Med. 63:2118-28
105. Keusch GT, Wilentz J, Kleinman A. 2006. Stigma and global health: developing a research agenda. Lancet 367:525-27
106. Khazzoom A. 2003. The great chain of Orientalism: Jewish identity, stigma management, and ethnic exclusion in Israel. Am. Sociol. Rev. 68:481-510
107. Kidd SA. 2007. Youth homelessness and social stigma. J. Youth Adolesc. 36:291-99
108. Kim HS, Sasaki JY. 2014. Cultural neuroscience: biology of the mind in cultural contexts. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 65:24.1-24.28
109. Kim P, Thomas JK, Wilk J, Castro C, Hoge CW. 2010. Stigma, barriers to care, and use of mental health services among active duty and National Guard soldiers after combat. Psychiatr. Serv. 61:582-88
110. Kleinman A, Hall-Clifford R. 2009. Stigma: a social, cultural and moral process. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 63:418-19
111. Klin A, Lemish D. 2008. Mental disorders stigma in the media: review of studies on production, content, and influences. J. Health Commun. 13:434-49
112. Kohi TW, Portillo CJ, Durrheim K, Diamini PS, Makoae LN, et al. 2010. Does perceived HIV stigma contribute to nurses' intent to migrate in five African countries? J. Assoc. Nurses AIDS Care 21:134-43
113. Komiti A, Judd F, Jackson H. 2006. The influence of stigma and attitudes on seeking help from a GP for mental health problems. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 41:738-45
114. Koro-Ljungberg ME, Bussing R. 2009. The management of courtesy stigma in the lives of families with teenagers with ADHD. J. Fam. Issues 30:1175-200
115. Kozubal DE, Samus QM, Bakare AA, Trecker CC, Wong HW, et al. 2013. Separate may not be equal: a preliminary investigation of clinical correlates of electronic psychiatric record accessibility in academic medical centers. Int. J. Med. Inform. 82:260-67
116. Krendl AC, Macrae CN, KelleyWM, Fugelsang JA, Heatherton TF. 2006. The good, the bad, and the ugly: an fMRI investigation of the functional anatomic correlates of stigma. Soc. Neurosci. 1:5-15
117. Kumar A, Hessini L, Mitchell EM. 2009. Conceptualising abortion stigma. Cult. Health Sex. 11:625-39
118. Lai YM, Hong C, Chee CY. 2000. Stigma of mental illness. Singap. Med. J. 42:111-14
119. Lee S, Lee MTY, Chiu MYL, Kleinman A. 2005. Experience of social stigma by people with schizophrenia in Hong Kong. Br. J. Psychiatry 186:153-57
120. Li L, Lee SJ, Thammawijaya P, Jiraphongsa C, Rotheram-Borus MJ. 2009. Stigma, social support and depression among people living with HIV in Thailand. AIDS Care 21:1007-13
121. Li L, Wu Z, Wu S, Jia M, Lieber E. 2008. Impacts of HIV/AIDS stigma on family identity and interactions in China. Fam. Syst. Health 26:431-42
122. Li L, Wu Z, Wu S, Zhaoc Y, Jia M, Yan Z. 2007. HIV-related stigma in health care settings: a survey of service providers in China. AIDS Patient Care STDs 21:753-62
123. Lindsey MA, Barksdale CL, Lambert SF, Ialongo NS. 2010. Social network influences on service use among urban, African American youth with mental health problems. J. Adolesc. Health 47:367-73
124. Link BG, Phelan JC. 2001. Conceptualizing stigma. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 27:363-85
125. Link BG, Phelan JC. 2006. Stigma and its public health implications. Lancet 367:528-29
126. Link BG, Phelan JC, Bresnahan M, Stueve A, Pescosolido BA. 1999. Public conceptions of mental illness: labels, causes, dangerousness and social distance. Am. J. Public Health 89:1328-33
127. Link BG, Phelan JC, Miech R, Westin EL. 2008. The resources that matter: fundamental causes of health disparities and the challenge of intelligence. J. Health Soc. Behav. 49:72-91
128. Link BG, Yang L, Phelan JC, Collins P. 2004. Measuring mental illness stigma. Schizophr. Bull. 30:511-41
129. Livingston JD, Boyd JE. 2010. Correlates and consequences of internalized stigma for people living with mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Soc. Sci. Med. 71:2150-61
130. Loftus J. 2001. America's liberalization in attitudes toward homosexuality, 1973 to 1998. Am. Sociol. Rev. 66:762-82
131. Logie CH, James LL, Tharao W, Loutfy MR. 2011. HIV, gender, race, sexual orientation, and sex work: a qualitative study of intersectional stigma experienced byHIV-positive women in Ontario, Canada. PLOS Med. 8:e1001124
132. Loury GC. 2003. Racial stigma: toward a new paradigm for discrimination theory. Am. Econ. Rev. 93:334-37
133. Luke DA, Harris JK. 2007. Network analysis in public health: history, methods, and applications. Annu. Rev. Public Health 28:69-93
134. Luke DA, Stamatakis KA. 2012. Systems science methods in public health: dynamics, networks, and agents. Annu. Rev. Public Health 33:357-76
135. Lysaker PH, Roe D, Yanos PT. 2007. Toward understanding the insight paradox: Internalized stigma moderates the association between insight and social functioning, hope, and self-esteem among people with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophr. Bull. 331:192-99
136. MacLeod JS, Austin JK. 2003. Stigma in the lives of adolescents with epilepsy: a review of the literature. Epilepsy Behav. 4:112-17
137. Major B, O'Brien LT. 2005. The social psychology of stigma. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 56:393-421
138. Mak WWS, Mo PK, Cheung RY, Woo J, Cheung FM, Lee D. 2006. Comparative stigma of HIV/AIDS, SARS, and tuberculosis in Hong Kong. Soc. Sci. Med. 63:1912-22
139. Mak WWS, Poon CYM, Pun LYK, Cheung SF. 2007. Meta-analysis of stigma and mental health. Soc. Sci. Med. 65:245-61
140. Maman S, Abler L, Parker L, Lane T, Chirowodza A, et al. 2009. A comparison of HIV stigma and discrimination in five international sites: the influence of care and treatment resources in high prevalence settings. Soc. Sci. Med. 68:2271-78
141. Manzo JF. 2004. On the sociology and social organization of stigma: some ethnomethodological insights. Hum. Stud. 27:401-16
142. Marsden PV. 2012. Social Trends in American Life: Findings from the General Social Survey since 1972. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
143. Martin JK, Pescosolido BA, Olafsdottir S, McLeod JD. 2007. The construction of fear: modeling Americans' preferences for social distance from children and adolescents with mental health problems. J. Health Soc. Behav. 48:50-67
144. Martin JK, Pescosolido BA, Tuch SA. 2000. Of fear and loathing: the role of disturbing behavior, labels and causal attributions in shaping public attitudes toward persons with mental illness. J. Health Soc. Behav. 41:208-33
145. MartinsMV, Peterson BD, Costa P, CostaME, Lund R, Schmidt L. 2013. Interactive effects of social support and disclosure on fertility-related stress. J. Soc. Personal Relat. 30:371-88
146. McGinty EE, Goldman HH, Pescosolido B, Barry CL. 2015. Portraying mental illness and drug addiction as treatable health conditions: effects of a randomized experiment on stigma and discrimination. Soc. Sci. Med. 126:73-85
147. McLeod JD, FettesDL, Jensen PS, Pescosolido BA, Martin JK. 2007. Public knowledge, beliefs, and treatment preferences concerning attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatr. Serv. 58:626-31
148. McLeod JD, Kaiser K. 2004. Childhood emotional and behavioural problems in educational attainment. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69:636-58
149. McLeod JD, Uemura R, Rohrman S. 2012. Adolescent mental health, behavior problems, and academic achievement. J. Health Soc. Behav. 53:482-97
150. Mechanic D. 2008. The Truth About Health Care: Why Reform Is NotWorking in America. NewBrunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press
151. Metzl JM, Hansen H. 2014. Structural competency: theorizing a new medical engagement with stigma and inequality. Soc. Sci. Med. 103:126-33
152. Mills CW. 1959. The Sociological Imagination. London: Oxford Univ. Press
153. Mojtabai R. 2010. Mental illness stigma and willingness to seek mental health care in the European Union. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 45:705-12
154. Olafsdottir S. 2007. Medicalizing Mental Health: A Comparative View of the Public, Private, and Professional Construction of Mental Illness. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ. Press
155. Olafsdottir S, Pescosolido BA. 2011. Constructing illness: how the public in eight Western nations respond to a clinical description of "schizophrenia". Soc. Sci. Med. 73:929-38
156. Olsson C, Lyon P, Hornell A, Ivarsson A, Sydner YM. 2009. Food that makes you different: the stigma experienced by adolescents with celiac disease. Qual. Health Res. 19:976-84
157. Ostman M, Kjellin L. 2002. Stigma by association: psychological factors in relatives of people with mental illness. Br. J. Psychiatry 81:494-98
158. OstromE. 2009.Ageneral framework for analyzing sustainability of social-ecological systems. Science 325:419-22
159. Pachankis JE. 2007. The psychological implications of concealing a stigma: a cognitive-affective-behavioral model. Psychol. Bull. 133:328-45
160. Pachankis JE, Hatzenbuehler ML, Starks TJ. 2014. The influence of structural stigma and rejection sensitivity on young sexual minority men's daily tobacco and alcohol use. Soc. Sci. Med. 103:67-75
161. Palmer C, Ziersch A, Arthurson K. 2004. Challenging the stigma of public housing: preliminary findings from a qualitative study in South Australia. Urban Policy Res. 22:411-26
162. Park K. 2002. Stigma management among the voluntarily childless. Sociol. Perspect. 45:21-45
163. Perlick DA, Rosenheck R, Clarkin JF, Sirey JA, Salahi J, et al. 2001. Stigma as a barrier to recovery: adverse effects of perceived stigma on social adaptation of persons diagnosed with bipolar affective disorder. Psychiatr. Serv. 52:1627-32
164. Perry BL. 2011. The labeling paradox: stigma, the sick role, and social networks in mental illness. J. Health Soc. Behav. 52:460-77
165. Pescosolido BA. 1992. Beyond rational choice: the social dynamics of how people seek help. Am. J. Sociol. 97:1096-138
166. Pescosolido BA. 2006. Of pride and prejudice: the role of sociology and social networks in integrating the health sciences. J. Health Soc. Behav. 47:189-208
167. Pescosolido BA. 2011. Response to Torrey Letter. Am. J. Psychiatry 168:325-26
168. Pescosolido BA. 2013. The public stigma of mental illness: What do we think; what do we know; what can we prove? J. Health Soc. Behav. 54:1-21
169. Pescosolido BA. 2015. Erving Goffman: themoral career of stigma andmental illness. In The PalgraveHandbook of Social Theory in Health, Illness and Medicine, ed. FM Collyer, pp. 273-86. New York: Macmillan
170. Pescosolido BA, Fettes DL, Martin JK, Monahan J, McLeod JD. 2007a. Perceived dangerousness of children with mental health problems and support for coerced treatment. Psychiatr. Serv. 58:1-7
171. Pescosolido BA, Jensen P, Martin JK, Perry BL, Olafsdottir S, Fettes DL. 2008a. Public knowledge and assessment of child mental health problems: findings from the National Stigma Study-Children. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 47:339-49
172. Pescosolido BA, Martin JK. 2007. Stigma and the sociological enterprise. In Mental Health, Social Mirror, ed. WR Avison, JD McLeod, BA Pescosolido, pp. 307-28. New York: Springer
173. Pescosolido BA, Martin JK, Lang A, Olafsdottir S. 2008b. Rethinking theoretical approaches to stigma: a framework integrating normative influences on stigma (FINIS). Soc. Sci. Med. 67:431-40
174. Pescosolido BA, Martin JK, Long JS, Medina TR, Phelan JC, Link BG. 2010. 'A disease like any other?' A decade of change in public reactions to schizophrenia, depression and alcohol dependence. Am. J. Psychiatry 167:1321-30
175. Pescosolido BA, McLeod JD, Avison WR. 2007b. Through the looking glass: the fortunes of the sociology of mental health. In Mental Health, Social Mirror, ed. WR Avison, JD McLeod, BA Pescosolido, pp. 3-32. New York: Springer
176. Pescosolido BA, Medina TR, Martin JK, Long JS. 2013. The 'backbone' of stigma: identifying the global core of public prejudice associated with mental illness. Am. J. Public Health 103:853-60
177. Pescosolido BA, Monahan J, Link BG, Stueve A, Kikuzawa S. 1999. The public's view of the competence, dangerousness, and need for legal coercion of persons with mental health problems. Am. J. Public Health 89:1339-45
178. Pescosolido BA, Olafsdottir S, Martin JK, Long JS. 2008c. Cross-cultural aspects of the stigma of mental illness. In Understanding the Stigma of Mental Illness: Theory and Interventions, ed. J Arboleda-Fl órez, N Sartorius, pp. 19-36. London:Wiley
179. Pescosolido BA, Perry BL, Martin JK, McLeod JD, Jensen PS. 2007c. Stigmatizing attitudes and beliefs about treatment and psychiatric medications for children with mental illness. Psychiatr. Serv. 58:613-18
180. Phelan JC. 2002. Genetic bases of mental illness-A cure for stigma? Trends Neurosci. 25(8):430-31
181. Phelan JC. 2005. Geneticization of deviant behavior and consequences for stigma: the case of mental illness. J. Health Soc. Behav. 46:307-22
182. Phelan JC, Link BG. 1998. The growing belief that people with mental illness are violent: the role of the dangerousness criterion for civil commitment. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 33:S7-S12
183. Phelan JC, Link BG, Dovidio JF. 2008. Stigma and prejudice: one animal or two? Soc. Sci. Med. 67:358-67
184. Phelan JC, Yang LH, Cruz-Rojas R. 2006. Effects of attributing serious mental illnesses to genetic causes on orientations to treatment. Psychiatr. Serv. 57:382-87
185. Pietrzak R, Johnson DL, Goldstein M, Malley JC, Southwick SM. 2009. Perceived stigma and barriers to mental health care utilization among OEF-OIF veterans. Psychiatr. Serv. 60:1118-22
186. Pilgrim D, McCranie A. 2013. Recovery and Mental Health: A Critical Sociological Account. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave MacMillan
187. Pinto-Foltz MD, Logsdon MC. 2009. Conceptual model of research to reduce stigma related to mental disorders in adolescents. Issues Mental Health Nurs. 30:788-95
188. Poindexter CC, Shippy RA. 2010. HIV diagnosis disclosure: stigma management and stigma resistance. J. Gerontol. Soc. Work 53:366-81
189. Pontikes E, Negro G, Rao H. 2010. Stained red: a study of stigma by association to blacklisted artists during the "Red Scare" in Hollywood, 1945 to 1960. Am. Sociol. Rev. 75:456-78
190. Pryor JB, Reeder GD, Monroe AE. 2012. The infection of bad company: stigma by association. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 102:224-41
191. Puhl RM, Brownell KD. 2003. Ways of coping with obesity stigma: review and conceptual analysis. Eat. Behav. 4:53-78
192. Puhl RM, Latner JD. 2007. Stigma, obesity, and the health of the nation's children. Psychol. Bull. 133:557-80
193. Quinn DM, Chaudoir SR. 2009. Living with a concealable stigmatized identity: the impact of anticipated stigma, centrality, salience, and cultural stigma on psychological distress and health. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 97:634-51
194. Rabinowitz JL, Sears DO, Sidanius J, Krosnick JA. 2009. Why do white Americans oppose race-targeted policies? Clarifying the impact of symbolic racism. Polit. Psychol. 30:805-28
195. Read J, Haslam N, Sayce L, Davies E. 2006. Prejudice and schizophrenia: a review of the 'mental illness is an illness like any other' approach. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 114:303-18
196. Reidpath DD, Chan KY. 2005. A method for the quantitative analysis of the layering of HIV-related stigma. AIDS Care 17:425-32
197. Reutter LI, StewartMJ, Veenstra G, Love R. 2009. "Who do they think we are, anyway?" Perceptions of and responses to poverty stigma. Qual. Health Res. 19:297-311
198. Richman LS, LattannerMR. 2014. Self-regulatory processes underlying structural stigma and health. Soc. Sci. Med. 103:94-100
199. Ritsher JB, Phelan JC. 2004. Internalized stigma predicts erosion of morale among psychiatric outpatients. Psychiatry Res. 129:257-65
200. Roeloffs C, Sherbourne CD, Unutzer J, Fink A, Tang L, Wells KB. 2003. Stigma and depression among primary care patients. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry 25:311-15
201. Room R. 2005. Stigma, social inequality and alcohol and drug use. Drug Alcohol. Rev. 24:143-55
202. Rosenfield S. 1997. Labeling mental illness: the effects of received services and perceived stigma on life satisfaction. Am. Sociol. Rev. 62:660-72
203. Ross CA, Goldner EM. 2009. Stigma, negative attitudes, and discrimination towards mental illness within the nursing profession: a review of the literature. J. Psychiatr. Mental Health Nurs. 16:558-67
204. Rudman LA, Mescher K. 2013. Penalizing men who request a family leave: Is flexibility stigma a femininity stigma? J. Soc. Issues 69:322-40
205. Rudolph AE, Davis WW, Quan VM, Ha TV, Minh NL, et al. 2012. Perceptions of IDU and HIV related stigma within the community and the family, disclosure decisions and experiences with layered stigma among HIV positive injection drug users in Vietnam. AIDS Care 24:239-44
206. Rusch N, Holzer A, Hermann C, Schramm E, Jacob GA, et al. 2006. Self-stigma in women with borderline personality disorder and women with social phobia. J. Nerv. Mental Dis. 194(10):766-73
207. Sampson RJ, Raudenbush SW. 2004. Seeing disorder: neighborhood stigma and the social construction of "broken windows". Soc. Psychol. Q. 67:319-42
208. Sartorius N. 2007. Stigma and mental health. Lancet 370:810-11
209. Scambler G. 2009. Health-related stigma. Sociol. Health Illn. 31:441-55
210. SchellerCA. 2014. Can churches separatemental illness and shame? Christianity Today, March 31. http://www. christianitytoday.com/ct/2014/march-web-only/rick-warren-saddleback-mental-health.html
211. Schnittker J. 2008. An uncertain revolution: why the rise of a genetic model of mental illness has not increased tolerance. Soc. Sci. Med. 67:1370-81
212. Schnittker J, John A. 2007. Enduring stigma: the long-term effects of incarceration on health. J. Health Soc. Behav. 48:115-30
213. Schomerus G, Angermeyer MC. 2008. Stigma and its impact on help-seeking for mental disorders: What do we know? Epidemiol. Psichiatr. Soc. 17:31-37
214. Schomerus G, Matschinger H. 2009. The stigma of psychiatric treatment and help-seeking intentions for depression. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 259:298-306
215. Schomerus G, Schwahn C, Holzinger A, Corrigan PW, Grabe HJ, et al. 2012. Evolution of public attitudes about mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 125(6):440-52
216. Schulze B. 2007. Stigma and mental health professionals: a review of the evidence on an intricate relationship. Int. Rev. Psychiatry 19:137-55
217. Schulze B, Angermeyer MC. 2003. Subjective experiences of stigma. A focus group study of schizophrenic patients, their relatives and mental health professionals. Soc. Sci. Med. 56:299-312
218. Schwenk TL, Davis L, Wimsatt LA. 2010. Depression, stigma, and suicidal ideation in medical students. JAMA 304:1181-90
219. Sharfstein SS. 2012. Status of stigma, 2012. Psychiatr. Serv. 63:953
220. Shibre T, Negash A, KullgrenG, KebedeD, Alem A, et al. 2001. Perception of stigma among family members of individuals with schizophrenia and major affective disorders in rural Ethiopia. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 36:299-303
221. Shifrer D. 2013. Stigma of a label: educational expectations for high school students labeled with learning disabilities. J. Health Soc. Behav. 54:462-80
222. ShihM. 2004. Positive stigma: examining resilience and empowerment in overcoming stigma. Ann. Am. Acad. Polit. Soc. Sci. 591:175-85
223. Silton NR, Flannelly KJ, Milstein G, VaalerML. 2011. Stigma in America: Has anything changed? Impact of perceptions of mental illness and dangerousness on the desire for social distance: 1996 and 2006. J. Nerv. Mental Dis. 199:361-66
224. Simbayi LC, Kalichman S, Strebel A, Cloete A, Henda N, Mgeketo A. 2007. Internalized stigma, discrimination, and depression among men and women living with HIV/AIDS in Cape Town, South Africa. Soc. Sci. Med. 64:1823-31
225. Simons HD, Bosworth C, Fujita S, Jensen M. 2007. The athlete stigma in higher education. Coll. Stud. J. 41:251-73
226. Sirey JA, Bruce ML, Alexopoulos GS, Perlick DA, Raue P, et al. 2001. Perceived stigma as a predictor of treatment discontinuation in young and older outpatients with depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 158:479-81
227. Stepanova EV, Strube MJ. 2012. The role of skin color and facial physiognomy in racial categorization: moderation by implicit racial attitudes. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 48:867-78
228. Stuart H, Arboleda-Fl órez J, Sartorius N. 2012. Paradigms Lost: Fighting Stigma and the Lessons Learned. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
229. Stuber J, Kronebusch K. 2004. Stigma and other determinants of participation in TANF and Medicaid. J. Policy Anal. Manag. 23:509-30
230. Sullivan TA, Warren E, Westbrook JL. 2006. Less stigma or more financial distress: an empirical analysis of the extraordinary increase in bankruptcy filings. Stanford Law Rev. 59:213
231. Surlis S, Hyde A. 2001. HIV-positive patients' experiences of stigma during hospitalization. J. Assoc. Nurses AIDS Care 12:68-77
232. Thoits P. 2011. Resisting the stigma of mental illness. Soc. Psychol. Q. 74:6-28
233. Thorne D, Anderson L. 2006. Managing the stigma of personal bankruptcy. Sociol. Focus 39:77-97
234. Thornicroft G, Rose D, Kassam A, Sartorius N. 2007. Stigma: ignorance, prejudice, or discrimination? Br. J. Psychiatry 190:192-93
235. Tickle-Degnen L, Zebrowitz LA, MaH. 2011. Culture, gender and health care stigma: practitioners' response to facial masking experienced by people with Parkinson's disease. Soc. Sci. Med. 73:95-102
236. Tilly C. 1984. Big Structures, Large Processes, Huge Comparisons. New York: Russell Sage
237. Torrey EF. 2011. The association of stigma with violence. Am. J. Psychiatry 168:325
238. Trautner MN, Collett JL. 2010. Students who strip: the benefits of alternate identities for managing stigma. Symb. Interact. 33:257-79
239. TsangHW, FungKM, Chung RC. 2010. Self-stigma and stages of change as predictors of treatment adherence of individuals with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 180:10-15
240. US Department of Health &Human Services. 1999. Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Bethesda, MD: US Dep. Health Hum. Serv
241. Van HollenC. 2010. HIV/AIDS and the gendering of stigma inTamil Nadu, South India. Cult.Med. Psychiatry 34:633-57
242. Varas-Díaz N, Serrano-García I, Toro-Alfonso J. 2005. AIDS-related stigma and social interaction: Puerto Ricans living with HIV/AIDS. Qual. Health Res. 15:169-87
243. Vaughan G, Hansen C. 2004. "Like minds, like mine": a New Zealand project to counter the stigma and discrimination associated with mental illness. Australas. Psychiatry 12:113-17
244. Vernooij-Dassen MJFJ, Moniz-Cook ED, Woods RT, De Lepeleire J, Leuschner A, et al. 2005. Factors affecting timely recognition and diagnosis of dementia across Europe: from awareness to stigma. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 20:377-86
245. Vogel DL, Wade NG, Haake S. 2006. Measuring the self-stigma associated with seeking psychological help. J. Couns. Psychol. 54:40-50
246. Vogel DL, Wade NG, Hackler AH. 2007. Perceived public stigma and the willingness to seek counseling: the mediating roles of self-stigma and attitudes toward counseling. J. Couns. Psychol. 54:40-50
247. Wade NG, Post BC, Cornish MA, Vogel DL, Tucker JR. 2011. Predictors of the change in self-stigma following a single session of group counseling. J. Couns. Psychol. 58:170-82
248. Wailoo K. 2006. Stigma, race, and disease in 20th century America. Lancet 367:531-33
249. Waller J, Marlow LAV, Wardle J. 2007. The association between knowledge of HPV and feelings of stigma, shame, and anxiety. Sex. Transm. Infect. 83:155-59
250. Wallhagen MI. 2010. The stigma of hearing loss. Gerontologist 50:66-75
251. Ware NC, Wyatt MA, Tugenberg T. 2006. Social relationships, stigma and the adherence to antiretroviral therapy for HIV/AIDS. AIDS Care 18:904-10
252. Watson AC, Corrigan PW, Larson JE, Sells M. 2007. Self-stigma in people with mental illness. Schizophr. Bull. 33:1312-18
253. Weiss JN, Yang L, QuZ. 2006. Systems biology approaches to metabolic and cardiovascular disorders: network perspectives of cardiovascular metabolism. J. Lipid Res. 47:2355-66
254. Werner P, Millelman MS, Goldstein D, Heinik J. 2012. Family stigma and the caregiver burden in Alzheimer's disease. Gerontologist 52:89-97
255. Wright A, Jorm AF, Mackinnon AJ. 2011. Labeling of mental disorders and stigma in young people. Soc. Sci. Med. 73:498-506
256. Yang LH, Chen F-P, Sia KJ, LamJ, LamK, et al. 2014. "Whatmatters most:" a culturalmechanism moderating structural vulnerability and moral experience of mental illness stigma. Soc. Sci. Med. 103:84-93
257. Yanos PT, Roe D, Markus K, Lysaker PH. 2008. Pathways between internalized stigma and outcomes related to recovery in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Psychiatr. Serv. 59:1437-42
258. Yebei VN, Fortenberry JB, Ayuku DO. 2008. Felt stigma among people living with HIV/AIDS in rural and urban Kenya. Afr. Health Sci. 8:97-102