Anger and racial politics: The emotional foundation of racial attitudes in America

Anger and Racial Politics: The Emotional Foundation of Racial Attitudes in America

Volumn , Issue , 2013, Pages 1-208

  Banks, Antoine J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84928365938     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781107279247     Document Type: Book

References (227)

1. Aboud, Frances E. 2005. “The Development of Prejudice in Childhood and Adolescence.” In John F. Dovidio, Peter Glick, and Laurie A. Rudman (eds.) On the Nature of Prejudice: Fifty Years after Allport (pp. 310–326). Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing.
2. Abramowitz, Alan I. 2011. “Partisan Polarization and the Rise of the Tea Party Movement.” Typescript. Emory University.
3. Abramowitz, Alan I. and Kyle L. Saunders. 2008. “Is Polarization a Myth?” Journal of Politics, 70: 542–555.
4. Adorno, T. W., Else Frenkel-Brunswk, Daniel J. Levinson, and R. Nevitt Sanford. 1950. The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Harper & Row.
5. Ai, Chunrong and Edward C. Norton. 2003. “Interaction Terms in Logit and Probit Models.” Economic Letters, 80: 123–129.
6. Alderman, Liz. 2012. “Greek Far Right Hangs a Target on Immigrants.” The New York Times on the Web. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/11/world/europe/as -golden-dawn-rises-in-greece-anti-immigrant-violencefollows.html?pagewanted=all.
7. Allport, Gordon W. 1954. The Nature of Prejudice. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
8. Arsenault, Raymond. 2006. Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice. New York: Oxford University Press.
9. Averill, James R. 1982. Anger and Aggression: An Essay on Emotion. New York: Springer-Verlag.
10. Averill, James R. 1983. “Studies of Anger and Aggression: Implication for Theories of Emotion.” American Psychologist, 38: 1145–1160.
11. Bang Peterson, Michael. 2010. “Distinct Emotions, Distinct Domains: Anger, Anxiety and Perceptions of Intentionality.” Journal of Politics, 72: 357–365.
12. Banks, Antoine J. and M. A. Bell. 2013. “Racialized Campaign Ads: The Emotional Content in Implicit Racial Appeals Primes White Racial Attitudes.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 77: 549–560.
13. Banks, Antoine J. and Nicholas A. Valentino. 2012. “Emotional Substrates of White Racial Attitudes.” American Journal of Political Science, 56: 286–297.
14. Baron, Reuben M. and David A. Kenny. 1986. “The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51: 1173–1182.
15. Berinsky, Adam J. 2009. In Time of War: Understanding American Public Opinion from World War II to Iraq. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
16. Berinsky, Adam J., Vincent L. Hutchings, Tali Mendelberg, Lee Shaker, and Nicholas A. Valentino. 2011. “Sex and Race: Are Black Candidates More Likely to be Disadvantaged by Sex Scandals?” Political Behavior, 33: 179–202.
17. Bertrand, Marianne and Sendhil Mullanianthan. 2004. “Are Emily and Greg More Employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination.” American Economic Review, 94: 991–1013.
18. Blake, Robert and Wayne Dennis. 1943. “The Development of Stereotypes Concerning the Negro.” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 38: 525–531.
19. Blumer, Herbert G. 1955. “Reflections on Theory of Race Relations.” In Andrew Lind (ed.) Race Relation in World Perspective (pp. 3–24). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
20. Blumer, Herbert G. 1958. “Race Prejudice as a Sense of Group Position.” Pacific Sociological Review, 1: 3–7.
21. Bobo, Lawrence D. 1983. “Whites’ Opposition to Busing: Symbolic Racism or Realistic Group Conflict?” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45: 1196–1210.
22. Bobo, Lawrence D. 1988. “Group Conflict, Prejudice, and the Paradox of Contemporary Racial Attitudes.” In Phyllis Katz and Dalmas Taylor (eds.) Eliminating Racism: Profiles in Controversy (pp. 85–109). New York: Plenum Press.
23. Bobo, Lawrence D. 2000. “Race and Beliefs about Affirmative Action: Assessing the Effects of Interest, Group Threat, Ideology, and Racism.” In David Sears, Jim Sidanius, and Lawrence Bobo (eds.) Racialized Politics: The Debate about Racism in America (pp. 137–164). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
24. Bobo, Lawrence D. and Vincent L. Hutchings. 1996. “Perceptions of Racial Group Competition: Extending Blumer’s Theory of Group Position to a Multiracial Social Context.” American Sociological Review, 61: 951–972.
25. Bobo, Lawrence D. and James R. Kluegel. 1997. “Status, Ideology, and Dimensions of Whites’ Racial Beliefs and Attitudes: Progress and Stagnation.” In Steven A. Tuch and Jack K. Martin (eds.) Racial Attitudes in the 1990s: Continuity and Change (pp. 93–120). Westport, CT: Praeger Press.
26. Bobo, Lawrence D. and Mia Tuan. 2006. Prejudice in Politics: Group Position, Public Opinion, and the Wisconsin Treaty Rights Dispute. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
27. Bower, Gordon. H. 1981. “Mood and Memory.” American Psychologist, 36: 129–148.
28. Bower, Gordon H. and Joseph P. Forgas. 2001. “Mood and Social Memory.” In J. P. Forgas (ed.) The Handbook of Affect and Social Cognition (pp. 95–120). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
29. Bower, Gordon. H., Kenneth P. Monteiro, and Stephen G. Gilligan. 1978. “Emotional Mood as a Context for Learning and Recall.” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 17: 573–585.
30. Brader, Ted. 2005. “Striking a Responsive Chord: How Political Ads Motivate and Persuade Voters by Appealing to Emotions.” American Journal of Political Science 49: 388–405.
31. Brader, Ted. 2006. Campaigning for Hearts and Minds: How Emotional Appeals in Political Ads Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
32. Brader, Ted, Eric W. Groenendyk, and Nicholas A. Valentino. 2011. “Fight or Flight? When Political Threats Arouse Public Anger and Fear.” University of Michigan Typescript.
33. Brader, Ted, Nicholas A. Valentino, and Elizabeth Suhay. 2008. “What Triggers Public Opposition to Immigration? Anxiety, Group Cues, and Immigration Threat.” American Journal of Political Science, 52: 959–978.
34. Brewer, Marilynn B. 1999. “The Psychology of Prejudice: Ingroup Love or Outgroup Hate?” Journal of Social Issues, 55: 429–444.
35. Brewer, Marilynn B. and Donald T. Campbell. 1976. Ethnocentrism and Intergroup Attitudes: East African Evidence. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
36. Busch, Andrew E. “The 2010 Midterm Elections: An Overview.” The Forum, 8: 1–15.
37. Butler, Daniel M. and David E. Broockman 2011. “Do Politicians Racially Discriminate against Constituents? A Field Experiment on State Legislators.” American Journal of Political Science, 55: 463–477.
38. Campbell, Angus, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes. 1960. The American Voter. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
39. Carmines, Edward G., Paul Sniderman, and Beth C. Easter. 2011. “On the Meaning, Measurement, and Implications of Racial Resentment.” ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 634: 98–116.
40. Cho, Wendy K. Tam, James G. Gimpel, and Daron R. Shaw. 2012. “The Tea Party Movement and the Geography of Collective Action.” Quarterly Journal of Political Science, 7: 105–133.
41. Clore, Gerald L. and David B. Centerbar. 2004. “Analyzing Anger: How to Make People Mad.” Emotion, 4: 139–144.
42. Converse, Phillip E. 1964. “The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics.” In D. E. Apter (ed.), Ideology and Discontent (pp. 206–261). New York: Free Press.
43. Crandall, Christian S. 1994. “Prejudice against Fat People: Ideology and Self-Interest.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66: 882–894.
44. Cuddy Amy J. C., Susan T. Fiske, and Peter Glick. 2007. “The BIAS Map: Behaviors from Intergroup Affect and Stereotypes.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92: 631–648.
45. Damasio, Antonio R. 1994. Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain. New York: Putnam and Sons.
46. DeSteno, David, Nilanjana Dasgupta, Monica Y. Bartlett, and Aida Cajdric. 2004. “Prejudice from Thin Air: The Effect of Emotion on Automatic Intergroup Attitudes.” Psychological Science, 15: 319–324.
47. Devine, Patricia G., E. Ashby Plant, and Kristen Harrison. 1999. “The Problem of “US’ Versus “Them’ and Aids Stigma.” American Behavioral Scientist, 42: 1212–1228.
48. Druckman, James N. 2004. Priming the Vote: Campaign Effects in a U.S. Senate Election. Political Psychology, 25: 577–594.
49. Ekman, Paul. 1993. “Facial Expression and Emotion.” American Psychologist, 48: 384–392.
50. Ekman, Paul and Wallace W. Friesen. 1976. “Pictures of Facial Affect.” Human Interaction Laboratory. San Francisco: University of California Medical Center.
51. Epstein, Ralph and S. S. Komorita. 1966. “Prejudice among Negro Children as Related to Parental Ethnocentrism and Punitiveness.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4: 643–647.
52. Edsall, Thomas B. and Mary D. Edsall. 1991. Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
53. Esses, Victoria M., John F. Dovidio, Lynne M. Jackson, and Tamara L. Armstrong. 2001. “The Immigration Dilemma: The Role of Perceived Group Competition, Ethnic Prejudice, and National Identity.” Journal of Social Issues, 57: 389–412.
54. Farley, Reynolds. 1984. Blacks and Whites: Narrowing the Gap? Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
55. Federico, Christopher M. 2005. “Racial Perceptions and Evaluative Responses to Welfare: Does Education Attenuate Race-of-Target Effects?” Political Psychology, 26: 683–698.
56. Fazio, Russell H. 1990, “A Practical Guide to the Use of Response Latency in Social Psychological Research.” In Clyde Hendrick and Margaret Clark (eds.) Research Methods in Personality and Social Psychology: Review of Personality and Social Psychology Volume 11 (pp. 74–97). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
57. Feldman, Stanley and Leonie Huddy. 2005. “Racial Resentment and White Opposition to Race-Conscious Programs: Principles or Prejudice?” American Journal of Political Science, 49: 168–183.
58. Fiorina, Morris P., with Samuel J. Abrams and Jeremy C. Pope. 2006. Culture War? The Myth of a Polarized America. 2nd ed. New York: Pearson Longman.
59. Forgas, Joseph P. 1995. “Mood and Judgment: The Affect Infusion Model (AIM).” Psychological Bulletin, 117: 39–66.
60. Fredrickson, George M. 1971. The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817–1914. New York: Harper and Row.
61. Fredrickson, George M. 2002. Racism: A Short History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
62. Frijda, Nico H., Peter Kulpers, and Elisabeth ter Schure. 1989. “Relations among Emotion, Appraisal, and Emotional Action Readiness.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57: 212–228.
63. Gamson, William A. and A Modigliana. 1987. “The Changing Culture of Affirmative Action.” In Research in Political Sociology, vol. 3, ed. Richard D. Braungart. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
64. Gaertner, Samuel L. and John F. Dovidio. 1986. “The Aversive Form of Racism.” In John F. Dovidio and Samuel L. Gaertner (eds.) Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism (pp. 61–89). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
65. Germond, Jack W. and Jules Witcover. 1989. Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. New York: Warner Books.
66. Gilens, Martin. 1995. “Racial Attitudes and Opposition to Welfare.” Journal of Politics, 57: 994–1014.
67. Gilens, Martin. 1999. Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
68. Gilliam Frank D. Jr. and Shanto Iyengar. 2000. “Prime Suspects: The Inl uence of Local Television News on the Viewing Public.” American Journal of Political Science, 44: 560–573.
69. Glick, Peter. 2005. “Choice of Scapegoats.” In John F. Dovidio, Peter Glick, and Laurie A. Rudman (eds.) On the Nature of Prejudice: Fifty Years after Allport (pp. 245–261). Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing.
70. Goldberg, Julie H., Jennifer S. Lerner, and Philip E. Tetlock. 1999. “Rage and Reason: The Psychology of the Intuitive Prosecutor.” European Journal of Social Psychology, 29: 781–795.
71. Gray, Jeffrey A. 1987. The Psychology of Fear and Stress. New York: Cambridge University Press.
72. Green, Donald P., Dara Z. Strolovitch, and Janelle S. Wong. 1998. Defended Neighborhoods, Integration, and Racially Motivated Crime. American Journal of Sociology, 104: 372–403.
73. Griffin, John D. and Brian Newman. 2008. Minority Report: Evaluating Political Equality in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
74. Groenendyk, Eric W. and Antoine J. Banks. (2013) “Emotional Rescue: How Affect Helps Partisans Overcome Collective Action Problems.” Political Psychology (published online).
75. Gurin, Patricia, Arthur H. Miller, and Gerald Gurin. 1980. “Stratum Identification and Consciousness.” Social Psychology Quarterly, 43: 30–47.
76. Guttmann, Amy and Dennis Thompson. 1996. Democracy and Disagreement. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
77. Hancock, Angie Marie. 2004. The Politics of Disgust and the Public Identity of the “Welfare Queen.” New York: New York University Press.
78. Hanmer, Michael J. and Kerem O. Kalkan. 2013. “Behind the Curve: Clarifying the Best Approach to Calculating Predicted Probabilities and Marginal Effects from Limited Dependent Variable Models.” American Journal of Political Science, 57: 263–277.
79. Harding, John, Harold Proshansky, Benard Kutner, and Isidor Chein. 1969. “Prejudice and Ethnic Relations.” In G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (eds.) The Handbook of Social Psychology (Vol. 5). (pp. 1–76). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
80. Harvey, Richard D. and Debra L. Oswald. 2000. “Collective Guilt and Shame as Motivation for White Support of Black Programs.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30: 1790–1811.
81. Henderson, Michael and D. Sunshine Hillygus. 2011. “The Dynamics of Health Care Opinion, 2008–2010: Partisanship, Self-Interest, and Racial Resentment.” Journal of Health Politics, Policy, and Law, 36: 945–960.
82. Henry, P. J. and David O. Sears. 2002. “The Symbolic Racism 2000 Scale.” Political Psychology, 23: 253–283.
83. Huber, Gregory A. and John S. Lapinski. 2006. “The “Race Card’ Revisited: Assessing Racial Priming in Policy Contests.” American Journal of Political Science, 50: 421–440.
84. Huddy, Leonie, and Stanley Feldman. 2009. “On Assessing the Political Effects of Racial Prejudice.” Annual Review of Political Science, 12: 423–447.
85. Huddy, Leonie, Stanley Feldman, and Erin Cassese. 2007. “On the Distinct Political Effects of Anxiety and Anger.” In W. Russell Neuman, George E. Marcus, Ann N. Crigler, and Michael MacKuen (eds.) The Affect Effect: Dynamics of Emotion and Political Thinking and Behavior (pp. 202–230). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
86. Huddy, Leonie, Stanley Feldman, Charles Tabler, and Gallaya Lahav. 2005. “Threat, Anxiety, and Support of Antiterrorism Politics.” American Journal of Political Science 49: 593–608.
87. Hutchings, Vincent L. 2009. “Change or More of the Same? Evaluating Racial Attitudes in the Obama Era.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 73: 917–942.
88. Hutchings, Vincent L. and Ashley E. Jardina. 2009. “Experiments on Racial Priming in Political Campaigns.” Annual Review of Political Science, 12: 397–402.
89. Hutchings, Vincent L., Nicholas A. Valentino, Tasha Philpot, and Ismail White. 2006. “Racial Cues in Campaign News: The Effects of Candidate Issue Distance on Emotional Responses, Political Attentiveness.” In David Redlawsk (ed.) Feeling Politics (pp. 165–186). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
90. Hutchings, Vincent L., Hanes Walton Jr., and Andrea Benjamin. 2010. “The Impact of Explicit Racial Cues on Gender Differences in Support for Confederate Symbols and Partisanship.” Journal of Politics, 72: 1175–1188.
91. Hurwitz, Jon and Mark Pefl ey. 2005. “Playing the Race Card in the Post- Willie Horton Era.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 69: 99–112.
92. Iyengar, Shanto. 1989. “How Citizens Think about National Issues: A Matter of Responsibility.” American Journal of Political Science, 33: 878–900.
93. Iyengar, Shanto. 1990. “Framing Responsibility for Political Issues: The Case of Poverty.” Political Behavior, 12: 19–40.
94. Iyengar, Shanto. 1996. “Framing Responsibility for Political Issues.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 546: 59–70.
95. Iyengar, Shanto and Donald R. Kinder. 1987. News that Matters: Television and American Public Opinion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
96. Jackson, James S., Kendrick T. Brown, Tony N. Brown, and Bryant Marks. 2001. “Contemporary Immigration Policy Orientation among Dominant- Group Members in Western Europe.” Journal of Social Issues, 57: 431–456.
97. Jackson, Walter A. 1990. Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience: Social Engineering and Racial Liberalism, 1938–1987. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
98. Jacobs, Lawrence R. and Theda Skocpol. 2010. Health Care Reform and American Politics: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York: Oxford University Press.
99. Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. 1992. Dirty Politics: Deception, Distraction and Democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
100. Johnson, Alex M. “Tennessee ad ignites internal GOP squabbling.” NBC News. Oct. 25, 2006. http://www.nbcnews.com/id/15403071/#. UsRSkXmQf8s.
101. Kalmoe, Nathan P. 2013. From Fisti ghts to Firei ghts: Trait Aggression and Support for State Violence.” Political Behavior, 35: 311–330.
102. Kam, Cindy D. and Donald R. Kinder. 2007. “Terror and Ethnocentrism: Foundations of American Support for the War on Terrorism.” Journal of Politics, 69: 320–338.
103. Karpowitz, Christopher, J. Quin Monson, Kelly D. Patterson, and Jeremy C. Pope. 2011. “Tea Time in America? The Impact of the Tea Party Movement on the 2010 Midterm Elections.” PS: Political Science and Politics, 44: 303–309.
104. Karlins, Marvin, Thomas L. Coffman, and Gary Walters. 1969. “On the Fading of Social Stereotypes: Studies in the Three Generation of College Students.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13: 1–16.
105. Katz, Daniel and Kenneth Braly. 1933. “Racial Stereotypes of One Hundred College Students.” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28: 280–290.
106. Kaufmann, Karen M. 2004. The Urban Voter: Group Conl ict and Mayoral Voting Behavior in American Cities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
107. Key, V. O., Jr. 1949. Southern Politics in State and Nation. New York: Knopf.
108. Keltner, Dacher, Phoebe C. Ellsworth, and Kari Edwards. 1993. “Beyond Simple Pessimism: Effects of Sadness and Anger on Social Perception.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64: 740–752.
109. Kinder, Donald R. and Cindy D. Kam. 2009. Us against Them: Ethnocentric Foundations of American Opinion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
110. Kinder, Donald R. and Thomas Palfrey. 1993. “On Behalf of an Experimental Political Science.” In D. R. Kinder and T. Palfrey (eds.), Experimental Foundations of Political Science (pp. 1–42). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
111. Kinder, Donald R. and Lynn M. Sanders. 1996. Divided by Color: Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
112. Kinder, Donald R. and David O. Sears. 1981. “Prejudice and Politics: Symbolic Racism Versus Racial Threats to the Good Life.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40: 414–431.
113. Knowles, Eric. D. Brian, S. Lowery, and Rebecca L. Schaumberg. 2010. “Racial Prejudice Predicts Opposition to Obama and His Health Care Reform Plan.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46: 420–423.
114. Krosnick, Jon A. and Donald R. Kinder. 1990. “Altering the Foundations of Support for the President through Priming.” American Political Science Review, 84: 497–512.
115. Kuklinski, James H., Paul M. Sniderman, Kathleen Knight, Thomas Piazza, Philip E. Tetlock, Gordon R. Lawrence, and Barbara Mellers. 1997. “Racial Prejudice and Attitudes toward Affirmative Action.” American Journal of Political Science, 41: 402–419.
116. Lane, Robert E. 1962. Political Ideology: Why the American Common Man Believes What He Does. New York: Free Press
117. Larsen, Randy J. and Barbara L. Fredrickson. 1999. Measurement Issues in Emotion Research. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, and N. Schwarz (eds.) Well-being: Foundation of Hedonic Psychology (pp. 40–60) New York: Russell Sage.
118. Layman, Geoffrey C. and Thomas M. Carsey. 2002. “Party Polarization and “Conflict Extension’ in the American Electorate.” American Journal of Political Science 46: 786–802.
119. Lazarus, Richard S. 1991. Emotion and Adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.
120. Lebron, Christopher J. 2013. The Color of Our Shame: Race and Justice in Our Time. New York: Oxford University Press.
121. Lee, Taeku. 2002. Mobilizing Public Opinion: Black Insurgency and Racial Attitudes in the Civil Rights Era. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
122. Lerner, Jennifer S. and Dacher Keltner. 2001. “Fear, Anger and Risk.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81: 146–159.
123. Lerner, Jennifer S. and Larissa Z. Tiedens. 2006. “Portrait of Angry Decision Maker: How Appraisal Tendencies Shape Anger’s Inl uence on Cognition.” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 19: 115–137.
124. Lerner, Jennifer S. Julie H. Goldberg and Philip E. Tetlock. 1998. “Sober Second Thought: The Effect of Accountability, Anger, and Authoritarianism on Attributions of Responsibility.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24: 563–574.
125. Lerner, Jennifer S., Roxana M. Gonzalez, Deborah A. Small, and Baruch Fischhoff. 2003. “Effects of Fear and Anger on Perceived Risks of Terrorism: A National Field Experiment.” Psychological Science, 14: 144–150.
126. Lewis, John with Michael D’Orso. 1998. Walking with the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement. New York: Simon and Schuster.
127. Mackie, Diane M., Thierry Devos, and Eliot R. Smith. 2000. “Intergroup Emotions: Explaining Offensive Action Tendencies in an Intergroup Context.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79: 602–616.
128. MacKuen, Michael, Jennifer Wolak, Luke Keele, and George E. Marcus. 2010. “Civic Engagements: Resolute Partisanship or Rel ective Deliberation.” American Journal of Political Science, 54: 440–458.
129. Marcus, George E. 2002. The Sentimental Citizen: Emotion in Democratic Politics. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
130. Marcus, George E., W. Russell Neuman, and Michael MacKuen. 2000. Affective Intelligence and Political Judgment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
131. Mayer, Jeremy D. 2002. Running on Race: Racial Politics in Presidential Campaigns, 1960–2000. New York: Random House.
132. McClosky, Herbert, and John Zaller. 1984. The American Ethos: Public Attitudes toward Capitalism and Democracy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
133. McConahay, John B. 1986. “Modern Racism, Ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale. In Samuel Gaertner and John Dovidio (eds.) Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism: Theory Research (pp. 91–125). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
134. McConahay, John B. and Joseph C. Hough Jr. 1976. “Symbolic Racism.” Journal of Social Issues, 32: 23–45.
135. McConnaughy, Corrine, Ismail K. White, and Chryl Laird. 2010. “Racial Politics Complicated: The Work of Gendered Race Cues in American Politics.” Typescript. Ohio State University.
136. McGinniss, Joe. 1969. The Selling of the President of 1968. New York: Trident Press.
137. Mendelberg, Tali. 1997. “Executing Hortons: Racial Crime in the 1988 Presidential Campaign.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 61: 134–157.
138. Mendelberg, Tali. 2001. The Race Card: Campaign Strategy, Implicit Messages, and the Norm of Equality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
139. Mendelberg, Tali. 2008. “Racial Priming Revived.” Perspectives on Politics, 6: 109–123.
140. Merolla, Jennifer L. and Elizabeth Zechmeister. 2009. Democracy at Risk: How Terrorist Threat Affect the Public. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
141. Miller, Arthur H., Patricia Gurin, Gerald Gurin, and Oksana Malanchuk. 1981. “Group Consciousness and Political Participation.” American Journal of Political Science, 25: 494–511.
142. Miller, Steven D. and David O. Sears. 1986. “Stability and Change in Social Tolerance: A Test of the Persistence Hypothesis.” American Journal of Political Science, 30: 214–236.
143. Mosher, Donald L. and Alvin Scodel. 1960. “Relationships between Ethnocentrism in Children and the Ethnocentrism and Authoritarian Rearing Practices of their Mothers.” Child Development, 31: 369–376.
144. Myrdal, Gunnar. 1944. An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. New York: Harper and Row.
145. Nelson, Thomas E., Rosalee A. Clawson, and Zoe Oxley. 1997. “Media Framing of a Civil Liberties Controversy and Its Effect on Tolerance.” American Political Science Review, 91: 567–583.
146. Olbermann, Keith. “Beware fear’s racist temptation: Don’t blame your fear of the future on Obama’s skin color.” MSNBC. Feb. 15, 2010. http://www. msnbc.msn.com/id/35413401/.
147. Oliver, Eric. 2005. Fat Politics: The Real Story behind America’s Obesity Epidemic. New York: Oxford University Press.
148. Oliver, Melvin L. and Thomas M. Shapiro. 2006. Black Wealth/White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality. New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group
149. Ori eld, Gary. 1988. “Race and the Liberal Agenda: The Loss of the Integrationist Dream, 1965–1974.” In Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff, and Theda Skocpol (eds.) The Politics of Social Policy in the United States (pp. 313–355). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
150. Owen, Diana and Jack Dennis. 1987. “Preadult Development of Political Tolerance.” Political Psychology, 8: 547–561.
151. Parker, Christopher S. and Matt A. Barreto. 2011. “Exploring the Causes and Consequences of Tea Party Support.” Typescript. University of Washington.
152. Parker, Christopher S. and Matt A. Barreto. 2013. Change They Can’t Believe In: The Tea Party and Reactionary Politics in America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
153. Pettigrew, Thomas F. 1979. “The Ultimate Attribution Error: Extending Allport’s Cognitive Analysis of Prejudice.” Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 5: 461–476.
154. Pettigrew, Thomas F. 1998. “Reaction toward the New Minorities of Western Europe.” Annual Review of Sociology, 24: 77–103.
155. Pettigrew, Thomas F. and R. W. Meertens. 1995. “Subtle and Blatant Prejudice in Western Europe.” European Journal of Social Psychology, 25: 57–75.
156. Pettigrew, Thomas F., Ulrich Wagner, and Oliver Christ. 2007. “Who Opposes Immigration? Comparing German with North American Findings.” Du Bois Review 4: 19–39.
157. Phillips, Kate. 2009. Carter’s Racism Charge Sparks War of Words. New York Times on the Web, September 16. http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/09/16/carters -racism-charge-sparks-war-of-words/.
158. Piston, Spencer. 2010. “How Explicit Racial Prejudice Hurt Obama in the 2008 Election.” Political Behavior 32: 431–451.
159. Quillian, Lincoln. 1995. “Prejudice as a Response to Perceived Group Threat: Population Composition and Anti-Immigrant and Racial Prejudice in Europe.” American Sociological Review, 60: 586–611.
160. Reeves, Keith. 1997. Voting Hopes or Fears?: White Voter, Black Candidates and Racial Politics in America. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
161. Rosenstone, Steven J., Roy L. Behr, and Edward H. Lazarus. 1984. Third Parties in America: Citizen Response to Major Party Failure. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
162. Rozin Paul and April E. Fallon. 1987. “A Perspective on Disgust.” Psychological Review, 94: 23–41.
163. Salmond, John A. 1997. My Mind Set on Freedom: A History of the Civil Rights Movement, 1954–1968. Chicago: The American Ways Series.
164. Sanders, Lynn M. 1997. “Against Deliberation.” Political Theory, 25: 347–376.
165. Schuman, Howard and Maria Krysan. 1999. “A Historical Note on Whites’ Beliefs about Racial Inequality.” American Sociological Review, 64: 847–855.
166. Schuman, Howard, Charlotte Steeh, Lawrence Bobo, and Maria Krysan. 1997. Racial Attitudes in American: Trends and Interpretations. Revised Edition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
167. Searing, Donald, Gerald Wright, and George Rabinowitz. 1976. “The Primacy Principle: Attitude Change and Political Socialization.” British Journal of Political Science, 6: 83–113.
168. Sears, David O. 1988. “Symbolic Racism.” In Phyllis Katz and Dalmas Taylor (eds.) Eliminating Racism: Proi les in Controversy (pp. 53–84). New York: Plenum Press.
169. Sears, David O. 1990. “Whither Political Socialization Research? The Question of Persistence.” In O. Ichilov (ed.) Political Socialization, Citizenship Education, and Democracy, (pp. 69–97). New York: Teachers College Press.
170. Sears, David O. and Jack Citrin. 1982. Tax Revolt: Something for Nothing in California. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
171. Sears, David O. and P. J. Henry. 2003. “The Origins of Symbolic Racism.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85: 259–275.
172. Sears, David O., Carl P. Hensler, and Leslie K. Speer. 1979. “Whites’ Opposition to “Busing’: Self-Interest or Symbolic Politics?” American Political Science Review, 73: 369–384.
173. Sears, David O. and Donald Kinder. 1971. “Racial Tensions and Voting in Los Angeles.” In W. Hirsch (ed.) Los Angeles: Viability and Prospects for Metropolitan Leadership (pp. 51–88). New York: Praeger.
174. Sears, David O. and John B. McConahay. 1973. The Politics of Violence: The New Urban Blacks and the Watts Riot. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
175. Sears, David O. Hilary Haley, and P. J. Henry. 2008. “Cultural Diversity and Sociopolitical Attitudes at College Entry.” In Jim Sidanius, Shana Levin, Colette van Larr, and David O. Sears (eds.) The Diversity Challenge: Social Identity and Intergroup Relations on the College Campus (pp. 65–99). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
176. Sears, David O., John J. Hetts, Jim Sidanius, and Lawrence D. Bobo. 2000. “Race in American Political Framing the Debates.” In David O. Sears, Jim Sidanius, and Lawrence D. Bobo (eds.) Racialized Politics: The Debate about Racism in America. (pp. 1–43). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
177. Sears, David O. Colette Van Laar, Mary Carrillo, and Rick Kosterman. 1997. “Is it Really Racism?: The Origins of White Americans’ Opposition to Race-Targeted Policies.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 61: 16–53.
178. Seelye, Katherine Q. “Fighting Health Care Overhaul, and Proud of it.” NY Times. Sugust 30, 2009. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/31/us/politics/31demint.html.
179. Shadish, William R., Thomas D. Cook, and Donald T. Campbell. 1979. Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifl in.
180. Sidanius, Jim and Felicia Pratto. 1999. Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. New York: Cambridge University Press.
181. Skocpol, Theda and Vanessa Williamson. 2012. The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
182. Smedley, Brian D. and John E. McDonough. 2011. “Repeal Would Dash Hopes to Reduce Disparities.” Baltimore Sun, January 18.
183. Smith, Craig A. and Phoebe C. Ellsworth. 1985. “Patterns of Cognitive Appraisal in Emotion.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48: 813–838.
184. Smith, Craig A., Kelly N. Haynes, Richard S. Lazarus, and Lois K. Pope. 1993. “In Search of the “Hot’ Cognitions: Attributions, Appraisals, and Their Relation to Emotion.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65: 916–929.
185. Smith, Eliot R. 1993. “Social Identity and Social Emotions: Toward New Conceptualization of Prejudice.” In D. Mackie and D. Hamilton (eds.) Affect, Cognition, and Stereotyping: Interactive Processes in Group Perception (pp. 297–315). New York: Academic Press.
186. Smith, Kevin B., Douglas R. Oxley, Mathew V. Hibbing, John R. Alford, and John R. Hibbing. (n.d.) “The Ick Factor: Physiological Sensitivity to Disgust as a Predictor of Political Attitudes.” Typescript. University of Nebraska at Lincoln.
187. Sniderman, Paul M. and Edward G. Carmines. 1997. Reaching beyond Race. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
188. Sniderman, Paul M. and Thomas Piazza. 1993. The Scar of Race. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
189. Sniderman, Paul M. and Philip E. Tetlock. 1986. “Reflections on American Racism.” Journal of Social Issues, 42: 173–187.
190. Sniderman, Paul M., G. C. Crosby, and W. G. Howell. 2000. “The Politics of Race.” In David Sears, Jim Sidanius, and Lawrence Bobo (eds.) Racialized Politics: The Debate about Racism in America. (pp. 263–279) Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
191. Steele, Shelby 2006. White Guilt: How Blacks and Whites Together Destroyed the Promise of the Civil Rights Era. New York: Harper Collins.
192. Stephan, Walter. G., Kurt A. Boniecki, Oscar Ybarra, Ann Bettencourt, Kelly S. Ervin, Linda A. Jackson, Penny S. McNatt, and C. L. Renfro. 2002. “The Role of Threats in the Racial Attitudes of Blacks and Whites.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28: 1242–1254.
193. Sutherland, Peter D. and Cecilia Malmstrom. 2012. Europe’s Immigration Challenge. The Guardian on the Web. http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/economics–blog/2012/jul/24/europe–immigration–challenge.
194. Suthammanont, Christina, David A. M. Peterson, Chris T. Owens, and Jane E. Leighley. 2010. “Taking Threat Seriously: Prejudice, Principle, and Attitudes toward Racial Policies.” Political Behavior, 32: 231–253.
195. Swim, Janet K. and Deborah L. Miller 1999. “White Guilt: Its Antecedents and Consequences for Attitudes toward Affirmative Action.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25: 500–514.
196. Tajfel, Henri. 1981. Human Groups and Social Categories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
197. Taylor, Donald M. and Vaishna Jaggi. 1974. “Ethnocentrism and Causal Attribution on a South Indian Context.” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 5: 162–171.
198. Tesler, Michael. 2012. “The Spillover of Racialization into Health Care: How President Obama Polarized Public Opinion by Race and Racial Attitudes and Race.” American Journal of Political Science, 56: 690–704.
199. Tesler, Michael and David O. Sears. 2010. Obama’s Race: The 2008 Election and the Dream of a Post-Racial America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
200. Thernstrom, Abigail. 1987. Whose Votes Count? Affirmative Action and Minority Voting Rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
201. Thernstrom, Abigail. 2010. Racial Epithets and the Tea Partiers, cont’d. http://www.nationalreview.com/corner/197423/racial -epithets-and-tea-partiers-contd/abigailthernstrom.
202. Thernstrom, Stephan and Abigail Thernstrom. 1997. America in Black and White: One Nation, Indivisible. New York: Simon & Schuster.
203. Tiedens, Larissa Z. and Susan Linton. 2001. “Judgment under Emotional Certainty and Uncertainty: The Effects of Specific Emotions on Information Processing.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81: 973–988.
204. Toner, Robin. 2006. “Ad Seen as Playing to Racial Fears.” New York Times on the Web October 26. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/26/us/politics/26tennessee.html.
205. Ture, Kwame and Charles V. Hamilton 1992. Black Power: The Politics of Liberation. New York: Vintage Books.
206. Tyler, Tom R. and Renee Weber. 1982. “Support for the Death Penalty; Instrumental Response to Crime or Symbolic Attitude.” Law and Society Review, 17: 21–46.
207. Valentino, Nicholas A. 1999. “Crime News and the Priming of Racial Attitudes during Evaluations of the President.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 63: 293–320.
208. Valentino, Nicholas A., and David O. Sears. 2005. “Old Times There Are Not Forgotten: Race and Partisan Realignment in the Contemporary South.” American Journal of Political Science, 49: 672–688.
209. Valentino, Nicholas A., Antoine J. Banks, Vincent L. Hutchings, and Anne K. Davis. 2009. “Selective Exposure in the Internet Age: The Interaction between Anxiety and Information Utility.” Political Psychology 30: 591–613.
210. Valentino, Nicholas A., Ted Brader, Eric W. Groenendyk, Krysha Gregorowicz, and Vincent L. Hutchings. 2011. “Election Night’s Alright for Fighting: The Role of Emotions in Political Participation.” Journal of Politics, 73: 156–170.
211. Valentino, Nicholas A., Ted Brader, and Ashley E. Jardina. 2013. “Immigration Opposition among U.S. Whites: General Ethnocentrism or Media Priming of Attitudes about Latinos?” Political Psychology, 34: 149–166.
212. Valentino, Nicholas A., Krysha Gregorowicz, and Eric W. Groenendyk. 2009. “Efficacy, Emotions and the Habit of Participation.” Political Behavior 31: 307–330.
213. Valentino, Nicholas A., Vincent L. Hutchings, Antoine J. Banks, and Anne K. Davis. 2008. “Is a Worried Citizen a Good Citizen? Emotions, Political Information Seeking, and Learning via the Internet.” Political Psychology, 29: 247–273.
214. Valentino, Nicholas A., Vincent L. Hutchings, and Ismail K. White. 2002. “Cues That Matter: How Political Ads Prime Racial Attitudes during Campaigns.” American Political Science Review, 96: 75–90.
215. Wagner Ulrich, Oliver Christ, and Wilhelm Heitmeyer. 2010. “Anti- Immigration Bias.” In John F. Dovidio, M. Hewstone, Peter Glick, and V. M. Esses (eds.) Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination (pp. 361–376). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
216. Ward, Dana. 1985. “Generation and the Expression of Symbolic Racism.” Political Psychology, 6: 1–18.
217. Weiner, Bernard. 1986. An Attributional Theory of Motivation and Emotion. New York: Springer-Verlag.
218. White, Ismail K. 2007. “When Race Matters and When It Doesn’t: Racial Group Differences in Response to Racial Cues.” American Political Science Review, 02: 339–354.
219. Williamson, Vanessa, Theda Skocpol, and John Coggin. 2011. “The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism.” Perspectives on Politics, 9: 25–43.
220. Wilson, Glenn D. 1973. The Psychology of Conservatism. New York: Academic Press.
221. Winter, Nick. 2006. “Beyond Welfare: Framing and the Racialization of White Opinion on Social Security.” American Journal of Political Science, 50: 400–420.
222. Wood, Forrest G. 1968. Black Scare: The Racist Response to Emancipation and Reconstruction. Berkeley: University of California Press.
223. Zaller, John R. 1992. The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
224. Zeleny, Jeff. 2009. “Thousands Rally in Capital to Protest Big Government.” New York Times on the Web, September 12. http://www.nytimes. com/2009/09/13/us/politics/13protestweb.html.
225. Zellman, Gail L. and David O. Sears. 1971. “Childhood Origins of Tolerance for Dissent.” Journal of Social Issues, 27: 109–135.
226. Zernike, Kate. 2010. Boiling Mad: Inside Tea Party America. New York: Times Books.
227. Zick, Andreas, Thomas F. Pettigrew, and Ulrich Wagner. 2008. “Ethnic Prejudice and Discrimination in Europe.” Journal of Social Issues, 64: 233–251.