The genetics of empathy and its disorders

Empathy in Mental Illness

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 261-288

  Anckarsäter, Henrik ^a   Cloninger, C Robert ^b  

^a LUND UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Sweden)

^b WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84927078786     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511543753.016     Document Type: Chapter

References (121)

1. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edn.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Press.
2. Anckarsater, H., Stahlberg, O., Larson, T., et al. (2006). The impact of ADHD and autism spectrum disorders on temperament, character and personality development. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(7), 1239-1244.
3. Arndt, T.L., Stodgell, C. J., & Rodier, P.M. (2005). The teratology of autism. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 23(2-3), 189-199.
4. Auranen, M., Vanhala, R., Varilo, T., et al. (2002). A genomewide screen for autism-spectrum disorders: evidence for a major susceptibility locus on chromosome 3q25-27. American Journal of Human Genetics, 71(4), 777-790.
5. Bachner-Melman, R., Zohar, A. H., & Ebstein, R. P. (2005). The TPQ profile of anorexic women and its relationship to recovery. Paper presented at the World Congress of Psychiatry, Vienna.
6. Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A.M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a ‘theory of mind’? Cognition, 21(1), 37-46.
7. Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., & Jolliffe, T. (1997). Is there a ‘language of the eyes’? Evidence from normal adults and adults with autism or Asperger syndrome. Visual Cognition, 4(3), 311-331.
8. Beitchman, J. H., Davidge, K. M., Kennedy, J. L., et al. (2003). The serotonin transporter gene in aggressive children with and without ADHD and nonaggressive matched controls. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1008, 248-251.
9. Bejerot, S., Nylander, L., & Lindstrom, E. (2001). Autistic traits in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 55(3), 169-176.
10. Benjamin, J., Osher, Y., Kotler, M., et al. (2000). Association between tridimensional personality questionnaire (TPQ) traits and three functional polymorphisms: dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4), serotonin transporter promoter region (5-HTTLPR) and catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT). Molecular Psychiatry, 5(1), 96-100.
11. Betancur, C., Corbex, M., Spielewoy, C., et al. (2002). Serotonin transporter gene polymorphisms and hyperserotonemia in autistic disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 7(1), 67-71.
12. Biederman, J., Munir, K., Knee, D., et al. (1986). A family study of patients with attention deficit disorder and normal controls. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 20(4), 263-274.
13. Billstedt, E., Gillberg, I. C., & Gillberg, C. (2005). Autism after adolescense: a population-based 13- to 22- year follow-up study of 120 individuals with autism diagnosed in childhood. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(3), 351-360.
14. Bobb, A.J., Castellanos, F.X., Addington, A.M., & Rapoport, J.L. (2004). Molecular genetic studies of ADHD: 1991 to 2004. American Journal of Medical Genetics B Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 132(1), 109-125.
15. Briskman, J., Happe, F., & Frith, U. (2001). Exploring the cognitive phenotype of autism: weak ‘central coherence’ in parents and siblings of children with autism: II. Real-life skills and preferences. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(3), 309-316.
16. Brown, W. A., Cammuso, K., Sachs, H., et al. (2003). Autism-related language, personality and cognition in people with absolute pitch: results of a preliminary study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(2), 163-167.
17. Buccino, G., Binkofski, F., Fink, G. R., et al. (2001). Action observation activates premotor and parietal areas in a somatotopic manner: an fMRI study. European Journal of Neuroscience, 13(2), 400-404.
18. Cadoret, R. J., & Stewart, M.A. (1991). An adoption study of attention deficit/hyperactivity/aggression and their relationship to adult antisocial personality. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 32(1), 73-82.
19. Cleckley, H. (1941). The Mask of Sanity. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby.
20. Cloninger, C. R. (2004). Feeling Good: The Science of Well-Being. New York: Oxford University Press.
21. Cloninger, C. R., Przybeck, T. R., Svrakic, D. M., & Wetzel, R. D. (1994). The Temperament and Character Inventory: A Guide to Its Development and Use. St. Louis, Mo.: Washington University Center for Psychobiology of Personality.
22. Cloninger, C. R., Svrakic, D. M., & Przybeck, T. R. (1993). A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50(12), 975-990.
23. Conciatori, M., Stodgell, C. J., Hyman, S. L., et al. (2004). Association between HOXA1 A218G polymorphism and increased head circumference in patients with autism. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 413-419.
24. Constantino, J. N., Gruber, C. P., Davis, S., et al. (2004). The factor structure of autistic traits. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(4), 719-726.
25. Constantino, J.N., Hudziak, J.J., & Todd, R. D. (2003). Deficits in reciprocal social behavior in male twins: evidence for a genetically independent domain of psychopathology. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42(4), 458-467.
26. Constantino, J. N., & Todd, R. D. (2003). Autistic traits in the general population: a twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(5), 524-530.
27. Cook, E. H., Jr., Courchesne, R. Y., Cox, N. J., et al. (1998). Linkage-disequilibrium mapping of autistic disorder, with 15q11-13 markers. American Journal of Human Genetics, 62(5), 1077-1083.
28. Cook, E. H., Jr., Courchesne, R., Lord, C., et al. (1997). Evidence of linkage between the serotonin transporter and autistic disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 2(3), 247-250.
29. Donnai, D., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2000). Williams syndrome: from genotype through to the cognitive phenotype. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 97(2), 164-171.
30. Doyle, T. F., Bellugi, U., Korenberg, J. R., & Graham, J. (2004). ‘Everybody in the world is my friend’ hypersociability in young children with Williams syndrome. American Journal of Medical Genetics A, 124(3), 263-273.
31. Ebstein, R. P., Segman, R., Benjamin, J., et al. (1997). 5-HT2C (HTR2C) serotonin receptor gene polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of reward dependence: interaction with dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) and dopamine D3 receptor (D3DR) polymorphisms. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 74(1), 65-72.
32. Ehlers, S., Nyden, A., Gillberg, C., et al. (1997). Asperger syndrome, autism and attention disorders: a comparative study of the cognitive profiles of 120 children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(2), 207-217.
33. Ekelund, J., Lichtermann, D., Jarvelin, M. R., & Peltonen, L. (1999). Association between novelty seeking and the type 4 dopamine receptor gene in a large Finnish cohort sample. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(9), 1453-1455.
34. Eley, T. C., Lichtenstein, P., & Moffitt, T. E. (2003). A longitudinal behavioral genetic analysis of the etiology of aggressive and nonaggressive antisocial behavior. Developmental Psychopathology, 15(2), 383-402.
35. Folstein, S., & Rutter, M. (1977). Infantile autism: a genetic study of 21 twin pairs. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 18(4), 297-321.
36. Frith, C. D., & Corcoran, R. (1996). Exploring ‘theory of mind’ in people with schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine, 26(3), 521-530.
37. Frith, U. (1989). Autism: Explaining the Enigma. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
38. Gillberg, C. (1992). The Emanuel Miller Memorial Lecture 1991. Autism and autistic-like conditions: subclasses among disorders of empathy. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33(5), 813-842.
39. Gillberg, C. (1995). Clinical Child Neuropsychiatry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
40. Gillberg, C. (1998). Chromosomal disorders and autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28(5), 415-425.
41. Gillberg, C., & Coleman, M. (2000). The Biology of the Autistic Syndromes, 3rd edn. London: Mac Keith.
42. Gillberg, C., & Soderstrom, H. (2003). Learning disability. Lancet, 362(9386), 811-821.
43. Gillespie, N. A., Cloninger, C. R., Heath, A. C., & Martin, N. G. (2003). The genetic and environmental relationship between Cloninger’s dimensions of temperament and character. Personal and Individual Differences, 35(8), 1931-1946.
44. Gopnik, A., & Astington, J. W. (1988). Children’s understanding of representational change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance-reality distinction. Child Development, 59(1), 26-37.
45. Gopnik, A., & Wellman, H. M. (1992). Why the child’s theory of mind really is a theory. Mind Language, 7(1-2), 145-171.
46. Hamer, D. H., Greenberg, B. D., Sabol, S. Z., & Murphy, D. L. (1999). Role of the serotonin transporter gene in temperament and character. Journal of Personality Disorders, 13(4), 312-327.
47. Happe, F., Ehlers, S., Fletcher, P., et al. (1996). ‘Theory of mind’ in the brain. Evidence from a PET scan study of Asperger syndrome. Neuroreport, 8(1), 197-201.
48. Happe:, F., & Frith, U. (1996). Theory of mind and social impairment in children with conduct disorder. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 14, 385-398.
49. Hogrefe, J. G., Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1986). Ignorance versus false belief: a developmental lag in attribution of epistemic states. Child Development, 57(3), 567-582.
50. Hudson, J. I., Mangweth, B., Pope, H. G., Jr., et al. (2003). Family study of affective spectrum disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(2), 170-177.
51. IMGSAC. (2001). A genomewide screen for autism: strong evidence for linkage to chromosomes 2q, 7q, and 16p. American Journal of Human Genetics, 69(3), 570-581.
52. Inoue, Y., Tonooka, Y., Yamada, K., & Kanba, S. (2004). Deficiency of theory of mind in patients with remitted mood disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82(3), 403-409.
53. Jamain, S., Betancur, C., Quach, H., et al. (2002). Linkage and association of the glutamate receptor 6 gene with autism. Molecular Psychiatry, 7(3), 302-310.
54. Jamain, S., Quach, H., Betancur, C., et al. (2003). Mutations of the X-linked genes encoding neuroligins NLGN3 and NLGN4 are associated with autism. Nature Genetics, 34(1), 27-29.
55. Jang, K. L., Livesley, W. J., Vernon, P. A., & Jackson, D.N. (1996). Heritability of personality disorder traits: a twin study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 94(6), 438-444.
56. Jolliffe, T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (1997). Are people with autism and Asperger syndrome faster than normal on the Embedded Figures Test? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(5), 527-534.
57. Kadesjo, B., & Gillberg, C. (1998). Attention deficits and clumsiness in Swedish 7-year-old children. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 40(12), 796-804.
58. Kadesjo, B., & Gillberg, C. (2001). The comorbidity of ADHD in the general population of Swedish school-age children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(4), 487-492.
59. Kadesjo, B., Gillberg, C., & Hagberg, B. (1999). Brief report: autism and Asperger syndrome in seven-year-old children: a total population study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(4), 327-331.
60. Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L., Elovainio, M., Kivimaki, M., etal. (2003). Association between the type 4 dopamine receptor gene polymorphism and novelty seeking. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65(3), 471-476.
61. Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L., & Heinonen, K. (2003). Childhood roots of adulthood hostility: family factors as predictors of cognitive and affective hostility. Child Development, 74(6), 1751-1768.
62. Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L., Raikkonen, K., Ekelund, J., & Peltonen, L. (2004). Nature and nurture in novelty seeking. Molecular Psychiatry, 9(3), 308-311.
63. Kim, S. J., Young, L. J., Gonen, D., etal. (2002). Transmission disequilibrium testing of arginine vasopressin receptor 1A (AVPR1A) polymorphisms in autism. Molecular Psychiatry, 7(5), 503-507.
64. Klauck, S.M., Poustka, F., Benner, A., Lesch, K. P., & Poustka, A. (1997). Serotonin transporter (5-HTT) gene variants associated with autism? Human Molecular Genetics, 6(13), 2233-2238.
65. Kluger, A. N., Siegfried, Z., & Ebstein, R. P. (2002). A meta-analysis of the association between DRD4 polymorphism and novelty seeking. Molecular Psychiatry, 7(7), 712-717.
66. Kotler, M., Cohen, H., Segman, R., et al. (1997). Excess dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III seven repeat allele in opioid-dependent subjects. Molecular Psychiatry, 2(3), 251-254.
67. Krebs, M. O., Betancur, C., Leroy, S., Bourdel, M. C., Gillberg, C., & Leboyer, M. (2002). Absence of association between a polymorphic GGC repeat in the 50 untranslated region of the reelin gene and autism. Molecular Psychiatry, 7(7), 801-804.
68. Larsson, J. O., Larsson, H., & Lichtenstein, P. (2004). Genetic and environmental contributions to stability and change of ADHD symptoms between 8 and 13 years of age: a longitudinal twin study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(10), 1267-1275.
69. Laumonnier, F., Bonnet-Brilhault, F., Gomot, M., etal. (2004). X-linked mental retardation and autism are associated with a mutation in the NLGN4 gene, a member ofthe neuroligin family. American Journal of Human Genetics, 74(3), 552-557.
70. Levy, F., Hay, D.A., McStephen, M., Wood, C., & Waldman, I. (1997). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(6), 737-744.
71. Mangweth, B., Hudson, J. I., Pope, H. G., et al. (2003). Family study of the aggregation of eating disorders and mood disorders. Psychological Medicine, 33(7), 1319-1323.
72. Martin, E. R., Menold, M. M., Wolpert, C. M., etal. (2000). Analysis of linkage disequilibrium in gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor subunit genes in autistic disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 96(1), 43-48.
73. Muhle, R., Trentacoste, S.V., & Rapin, I. (2004). The genetics of autism. Pediatrics, 113(5), e472-486.
74. Muris, P., Steerneman, P., & Merckelbach, H. (1998). Difficulties in the understanding of false belief: specific to autism and other pervasive developmental disorders? Psychological RepoA, 82(1), 51-57.
75. Nyden, A., Carlsson, M., Carlsson, A., & Gillberg, C. (2004). Interhemispheric transfer in high- functioning children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: a controlled pilot study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 46(7), 448-454.
76. Park, L., Nigg, J. T., Waldman, I.D., et al. (2004). Association and linkage of alpha-2 A adrenergic receptor gene polymorphisms with childhood ADHD. Molecular Psychiatry, 10(6), 572-580.
77. Pauls, D. L., Raymond, C. L., Stevenson, J. M., & Leckman, J. F. (1991). A family study of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. American Journal of Human Genetics, 48(1), 154-163.
78. Perner, J., & Lang, B. (1999). Development of theory of mind and executive control. Trends in Cognitive Science, 3(9), 337-344.
79. Persico, A. M., Militerni, R., Bravaccio, C., et al. (2000). Lack of association between serotonin transporter gene promoter variants and autistic disorder in two ethnically distinct samples. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 96(1), 123-127.
80. Persico, A. M., D’Agruma, L., Maiorano, N., et al. (2001). Reelin gene alleles and haplotypes as a factor predisposing to autistic disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 6(2), 150-159.
81. Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioral and Brain Science, 1, 515-526.
82. Rasmussen, P., & Gillberg, C. (2000). Natural outcome of ADHD with developmental coordination disorder at age 22 years: a controlled, longitudinal, community-based study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(11), 1424-1431.
83. Rathey, J. J., & Johnson, C. (1997). Shadow Syndromes. New York: Pantheon Books.
84. Retz, W., Retz-Junginger, P., Supprian, T., Thome, J., & Rosler, M. (2004). Association of serotonin transporter promoter gene polymorphism with violence: relation with personality disorders, impulsivity, and childhood ADHD psychopathology. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 22(3), 415-425.
85. Rhee, S.H., & Waldman, I. D. (2002). Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: a meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin, 128(3), 490-529.
86. Rodriguiz, R. M., Chu, R., Caron, M. G., & Wetsel, W. C. (2004). Aberrant responses in social interaction of dopamine transporter knockout mice. Behavioral Brain Research, 148(1-2), 185-198.
87. Ronald, A., Happe, F., & Plomin, R. (2006). Autistic-like features in a community sample of 7-year-olds: genetic evidence for separate social and non-social components. In press.
88. Rushton, J. P., Fulker, D. W., Neale, M. C., Blizard, R. A., & Eysenck, H. J. (1984). Altruism and genetics. Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae (Roma), 33(2), 265-271.
89. Rutherford, M. D., Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2002). Reading the mind in the voice: a study with normal adults and adults with Asperger syndrome and high functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32(3), 189-194.
90. Rutter, M. (1997). Implications of genetic research for child psychiatry. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 42(6), 569-576.
91. Rutter, M., Silberg, J., O’Connor, T., & Simonoff, E. (1999). Genetics and child psychiatry: II Empirical research findings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40(1), 19-55.
92. Sabol, S. Z., Nelson, M. L., Fisher, C., et al. (1999). A genetic association for cigarette smoking behavior. Health Psychology, 18(1), 7-13.
93. Scarr, S., & McCartney, K. (1983). How people make their own environments: a theory of genotype greater than environment effects. Child Development, 54(2), 424-435.
94. Schinka, J.A., Letsch, E. A., & Crawford, F. C. (2002). DRD4 and novelty seeking: results of meta-analyses. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 114(6), 643-648.
95. Shao, Y., Wolpert, C. M., Raiford, K. L., etal. (2002). Genomic screen and follow-up analysis for autistic disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 114(1), 99-105.
96. Sherman, D. K., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. K. (1997). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder dimensions: a twin study of inattention and impulsivity-hyperactivity. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(6), 745-753.
97. Sing, C. F., Haviland, M.B., & Reilly, S.L. (1996). Genetic architecture of common multifactorial diseases. Ciba Foundation Symposium, 197, 211-229; discussion 229-232.
98. Siponmaa, L., Kristiansson, M., Jonson, C., Nyden, A., & Gillberg, C. (2001). Juvenile and young adult mentally disordered offenders: the role of child neuropsychiatric disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 29(4), 420-426.
99. Soderstrom, H., Nilsson, T., Sjodin, A. K., Carlstedt, A., & Forsman, A. (2005). The childhood- onset neuropsychiatric background to adulthood psychopathic traits and personality disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 46(2), 111-116.
100. Soderstrom, H., Rastam, M., & Gillberg, C. (2002). Temperament and character in adults with Asperger syndrome. Autism, 6(3), 287-297.
101. Soderstrom, H., Sjodin, A. K., Carlstedt, A., & Forsman, A. (2004). Adult psychopathic personality with childhood-onset hyperactivity and conduct disorder: a central problem constellation in forensic psychiatry. Psychiatry Research, 121(3), 271-280.
102. Spiker, D., Lotspeich, L. J., Dimiceli, S., Myers, R. M., & Risch, N. (2002). Behavioral phenotypic variation in autism multiplex families: evidence for a continuous severity gradient. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 114(2), 129-136.
103. Steffenburg, S., Gillberg, C., Hellgren, L., et al. (1989). A twin study of autism in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30(3), 405-416.
104. Strobel, A., Lesch, K. P., Jatzke, S., Paetzold, F., & Brocke, B. (2003). Further evidence for a modulation of Novelty Seeking by DRD4 exon III, 5-HTTLPR, and COMT val/met variants. Molecular Psychiatry, 8(3), 371-372.
105. Strober, M., Freeman, R., Lampert, C., Diamond, J., & Kaye, W. (2000). Controlled family study of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: evidence of shared liability and transmission of partial syndromes. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(3), 393-401.
106. Svrakic, D. M., Whitehead, C., Przybeck, T. R., & Cloninger, C. R. (1993). Differential diagnosis of personality disorders by the seven-factor model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50(12), 991-999.
107. Szatmari, P., Merette, C., Bryson, S. E., et al. (2002). Quantifying dimensions in autism: a factor- analytic study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(4), 467-474.
108. Thapar, A., Harrington, R., Ross, K., & McGuffin, P. (2000). Does the definition of ADHD affect heritability? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(12), 1528-1536.
109. Torgersen, S., Lygren, S., Orien, P. A., et al. (2000). A twin study of personality disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 41(6), 416-425.
110. Turic, D., Langley, K., Mills, S., etal. (2004). Follow-up of genetic linkage findings on chromosome 16p13: evidence of association of N-methyl-D aspartate glutamate receptor 2 A gene polymorphism with ADHD. Molecular Psychiatry, 9(2), 169-173.
111. Van Gestel, S., Forsgren, T., Claes, S., et al. (2002). Epistatic effects of genes from the dopamine and serotonin systems on the temperament traits of novelty seeking and harm avoidance. Molecular Psychiatry, 7(5), 448-450.
112. van Praag, H. M. (1996). Comorbidity (psycho) analysed. British Journal of Psychiatry Supplement, 30, 129-134.
113. Veenstra-Vanderweele, J., Christian, S. L., & Cook, E. H., Jr. (2004). Autism as a paradigmatic complex genetic disorder. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 5, 379-405.
114. Veenstra-Vanderweele, J., & Cook, E. H., Jr. (2004). Molecular genetics of autism spectrum disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 9(9), 819-832.
115. Wentz Nilsson, E. W., Gillberg, C., Gillberg, I. C., & Rastam, M. (1999). Ten-year follow-up of adolescent-onset anorexia nervosa: personality disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(11), 1389-1395.
116. Wing, L. (1981). Language, social, and cognitive impairments in autism and severe mental retardation. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 11(1), 31-44.
117. Wing, L. (1983). Social and interpersonal needs. In E. Schopler, & G. B. Mesibov (eds.), Autism in Adolescents and Adults (337-354). New York: Plenum Press.
118. Wing, L. (1996). Autistic spectrum disorders. British Medical Journal, 312(7027), 327-328.
119. Wolff, S. (1991). ‘Schizoid’ personality in childhood and adult life: I. The vagaries of diagnostic labelling. British Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 615-620, 634-635.
120. Zerba, K. E., Ferrell, R. E., & Sing, C. F. (2000). Complex adaptive systems and human health: the influence of common genotypes of the apolipoprotein E (ApoE) gene polymorphism and age on the relational order within a field of lipid metabolism traits. Human Genetics, 107(5), 466-475.
121. Zhang, H., Liu, X., Zhang, C., et al. (2002). Reelin gene alleles and susceptibility to autism spectrum disorders. Molecular Psychiatry, 7(9), 1012-1017.