Glucocorticoids and inflammation: A double-headed sword in depression?: How do neuroendocrine and inflammatory pathways interact during stress to contribute to the pathogenesis of depression?

Inflammation in Psychiatry

Volumn 28, Issue , 2013, Pages 127-143

  Horowitz, M A ^a   Zunszain, P A ^a,b   Anacker, C ^a,b   Musaelyan, K ^a   Pariante, C M ^a,b  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b SOUTH LONDON AND MAUDSLEY NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84925798388     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1159/000343980     Document Type: Chapter

References (130)

1. Raison C: When not enough is too much: the role of insufficient glucocorticoid signalling in the pathophysiology of stress-related disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1554-1565.
2. Sorrells SF, Caso JR, Munhoz CD, Sapolsky RM: The stressed CNS: when glucocorticoids aggravate inflammation. Neuron 2009;64:33-39.
3. Schiepers OJG, Wichers MC, Maes M: Cytokines and major depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2005;29:201-217.
4. Miller AH: Mechanisms of cytokineinduced behavioral changes: psychoneuroimmunology at the translational interface. Brain Behav Immun 2009;23: 149-158.
5. Zunszain PA, Anacker C, Cattaneo A, Carvalho LA, Pariante CM: Glucocorticoids, cytokines and brain abnormalities in depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2011;35:722-729.
6. Lucassen PJ, Meerlo P, Naylor AS, Dam AMV, Dayer AG, Fuchs E, et al: Regulation of adult neurogenesis by stress, sleep disruption, exercise and inflammation: implications for depression and antidepressant action. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2010;20:1-17.
7. Anacker C, Zunszain PA, Cattaneo A, Carvalho LA, Garabedian MJ, Thuret S, et al: Antidepressants increase human hippocampal neurogenesis by activating the glucocorticoid receptor. Mol Psychiatry 2011;16:738-750.
8. Stone EA, Lin Y, Quartermain D: A final common pathway for depression? Progress toward a general conceptual framework. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2008;32: 508-524.
9. Evans DL, Charney DS, Lewis L, Golden RN, Gorman JM, Krishnan KRR, et al: Mood disorders in the medically ill. Biol Psychiatry 2005;58:175-189.
10. Pollak Y, Yirmiya R: Cytokine-induced changes in mood and behaviour: implications for 'depression due to a general medical condition', immunotherapy and antidepressive treatment. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2002;5:389-399.
11. Raison CL, Capuron L, Miller AH: Cytokines sing the blues: inflammation and the pathogenesis of depression. Trends Immunol 2006;27:24-31.
12. Pandey GN, Rizavi HS, Ren X, Fareed J, Hoppensteadt DA, Roberts RC, et al: Proinflammatory cytokines in the prefrontal cortex of teenage suicide victims. J Psychiatric Res 2012;46:57-63.
13. Howren M, Lamkin D, Suls J: Associations of depression with C-reactive protein, IL-1, and IL-6: a meta-analysis. Psychosom Med 2009;186:171-186.
14. Dowlati Y, Herrmann N, Swardfager W, Liu H, Sham L, Reim EK, et al: A metaanalysis of cytokines in major depression. Biol Psychiatry 2010;67:446-457.
15. Asnis G, De La Garza R: Interferoninduced depression in chronic hepatitis C: a review of its prevalence, risk factors, biology, and treatment approaches. J Clin Gastroenterol 2006;40:322-335.
16. Capuron L, Miller AH: Cytokines and psychopathology: lessons from interferon-alpha. Biol Psychiatry 2004; 56:819-824.
17. Raison C, Borisov A, Broadwell S: Depression during pegylated interferonalpha plus ribavirin therapy: prevalence and prediction. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66:41-48.
18. Capuron L, Gumnick J, Musselman D: Neurobehavioral effects of interferon-α in cancer patients: phenomenology and paroxetine responsiveness of symptom dimensions. Neuropsychopharmacology 2002;26:643-652.
19. Miller AH, Maletic V, Raison CL: Inflammation and its discontents: the role of cytokines in the pathophysiology of major depression. Biol Psychiatry 2009;65:732-741.
20. Szelenyi J: Cytokines and the central nervous system. Brain Res Bull 2001;54: 329-338.
21. Kitagami T, Yamada K, Miura H, Hashimoto R, Nabeshima T, Ohta T: Mechanism of systemically injected interferonalpha impeding monoamine biosynthesis in rats: role of nitric oxide as a signal crossing the blood-brain barrier. Brain Res 2003;978:104-114.
22. Zhu C-B, Blakely RD, Hewlett WA: The proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha activate serotonin transporters. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006;31:2121-2131.
23. Moron J, Zakharova I, Ferrer J, Al E: Mitogen-activated protein kinase regulates dopamine transporter surface expression and dopamine transport capacity. J Neurosci 2003;23:8480-8488.
24. Chang L, Karin M: Mammalian MAP kinase signalling cascades. Nature 2001; 410:37-40.
25. Fujigaki H, Saito K, Fujigaki S, Takemura M, Sudo K, Ishiguro H, et al: The signal transducer and activator of transcription 1alpha and interferon regulatory factor 1 are not essential for the induction of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase by lipopolysaccharide: involvement of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor. J Biochem 2006;139:655-662.
26. Bonaccorso S, Marino V, Biondi M, Grimaldi F, Ippoliti F, Maes M: Depression induced by treatment with interferon-alpha in patients affected by hepatitis C virus. J Affect Disord 2002;72:237-241.
27. Wichers MC, Koek GH, Robaeys G, Verkerk R, Scharpé S, Maes M: IDO and interferon-alpha-induced depressive symptoms: a shift in hypothesis from tryptophan depletion to neurotoxicity. Mol Psychiatry 2005;10:538-544.
28. Myint AM, O'Mahony S, Kubera M, Kim YK, Kenny C, Kaim-Basta A, et al: Role of paroxetine in interferon-alphainduced immune and behavioural changes in male Wistar rats. J Psychopharmacol 2007;21:843-850.
29. Zunszain, Anacker C, Cattaneo A, Choudhury S, Musaelyan K, Myint AM, et al: Interleukin-1β: a new regulator of the kynurenine pathway affecting human hippocampal neurogenesis. Neuropsychopharmacology 2012;37:939-949.
30. Snyder JS, Soumier A, Brewer M, Pickel J, Cameron HA: Adult hippocampal neurogenesis buffers stress responses and depressive behaviour. Nature 2011;476:458-461.
31. Sapolsky RM: Is impaired neurogenesis relevant to the affective symptoms of depression? Biol Psychiatry 2004;56: 137-139.
32. Pariante C, Miller AH: Glucocorticoid receptors in major depression: relevance to pathophysiology and treatment. Biol Psychiatry 2001;49:391-404.
33. Pace TWW, Miller AH: Cytokines and glucocorticoid receptor signaling. Relevance to major depression. Ann NY Acad Sci 2009;1179:86-105.
34. Hayley S, Poulter MO, Merali Z, Anisman H: The pathogenesis of clinical depression: stressor-and cytokineinduced alterations of neuroplasticity. Neuroscience 2005;135:659-678.
35. Pickering M, O'Connor JJ: Proinflammatory cytokines and their effects in the dentate gyrus. Prog Brain Res 2007;163:339-354.
36. Felger J, Alagbe O, Hu F, Mook D: Effects of interferon-alpha on rhesus monkeys: a nonhuman primate model of cytokineinduced depression. Biol Psychiatry 2007;23:1324-1333.
37. Song C, Wang H: Cytokines mediated inflammation and decreased neurogenesis in animal models of depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2011;35:760-768.
38. Goshen I, Kreisel T, Licht T, Weidenfeld J, Yirmiya R, Ben-Menachem-Zidon O, et al: Brain interleukin-1 mediates chronic stress-induced depression in mice via adrenocortical activation and hippocampal neurogenesis suppression. Mol Psychiatry 2008;13:717-728.
39. Koo JW, Duman RS: IL-1β is an essential mediator of the antineurogenic and anhedonic effects of stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008;105:751-756.
40. Mendlewicz J, Kriwin P, Oswald P, Souery D, Alboni S, Brunello N: Shortened onset of action of antidepressants in major depression using acetylsalicylic acid augmentation: a pilot open-label study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2006;21:227-231.
41. Müller N, Schwarz MJ, Dehning S, Douhe A, Cerovecki A, Goldstein-Müller B, et al: The cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor celecoxib has therapeutic effects in major depression: results of a doubleblind, randomized, placebo controlled, add-on pilot study to reboxetine. Mol Psychiatry 2006;11:680-684.
42. Tyring S, Gottlieb A, Papp K, Gordon K, Leonardi C, Wang A, et al: Etanercept and clinical outcomes, fatigue, and depression in psoriasis: double-blind placebo-controlled randomised phase III trial. Lancet 2006;367:29-35.
43. Young EA, Haskett RF, Murphy-Weinberg V, Watson SJ, Akil H: Loss of glucocorticoid fast feedback in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:693-699.
44. Holsboer F: The corticosteroid receptor hypothesis of depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 2000;23:477-501.
45. Pariante C: Depression, stress and the adrenal axis. J Neuroendocrinol 2003;15: 811.
46. Nemeroff CB, et al: Adrenal gland enlargement in major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992;49:384-347.
47. Pariante CM: Risk factors for development of depression and psychosis. Glucocorticoid receptors and pituitary implications for treatment with antidepressant and glucocorticoids. Ann NY Acad Sci 2009;1179:144-152.
48. Juruena MF, Cleare AJ, Papadopoulos AS, Poon L, Lightman S, Pariante C: Different responses to dexamethasone and prednisolone in the same depressed patients. Psychopharmacology 2006;189: 225-235.
49. Brown ES, Suppes T: Mood symptoms during corticosteroid therapy: a review. Harv Rev Psychiatry 1998;5:239-246.
50. Ardayfio P, Kim K-S: Anxiogenic-like effect of chronic corticosterone in the light-dark emergence task in mice. Behav Neurosci 2006;120:249-256.
51. Murray F, Smith DW, Hutson PH: Chronic low dose corticosterone exposure decreased hippocampal cell proliferation, volume and induced anxiety and depression like behaviours in mice. Eur J Pharmacol 2008;583:115-127.
52. David D, Samuels BA, Rainer Q, Wang J-W, Marsteller D, Mendez I, et al: Neurogenesis-dependent and-independent effects of fluoxetine in an animal model of anxiety/depression. Neuron 2009;161:479-493.
53. Herbert J, Goodyer IM, Grossman AB, Hastings MH, de Kloet ER, Lightman SL, et al: Do corticosteroids damage the brain? J Neuroendocrinol 2006;18: 393-411.
54. McEwen BS, Seeman T: Protective and damaging effects of mediators of stress. Elaborating and testing the concepts of allostasis and allostatic load. Ann NY Acad Sci 1999;896:30-47.
55. Sapolsky RM: The possibility of neurotoxicity in the hippocampus in major depression: a primer on neuron death. Biol Psychiatry 2000;48:755-765.
56. Gould E, Cameron H, Daniels DC, Woolley CS, McEwen BS: Adrenal hormones suppress cell division in the adult rat dentate gyrus. J Neurosci 1992;12:3642-3650.
57. McEwen BS, Magarinos AM: Stress and hippocampal plasticity: implications for the pathophysiology of affective disorders. Human Psychopharmacol 2001; 16(S1):S7-S19.
58. Sousa N, Cerqueira JJ, Almeida OFX: Corticosteroid receptors and neuroplasticity. Brain Res Rev 2008;57:561-570.
59. Kim JB, Ju JY, Kim JH, Kim T-Y, Yang B-H, Lee Y-S, et al: Dexamethasone inhibits proliferation of adult hippocampal neurogenesis in vivo and in vitro. Brain Res 2004;1027:1-10.
60. Reif A, Fritzen S, Finger M, Strobel A, Lauer M, Schmitt A, et al: Neural stem cell proliferation is decreased in schizophrenia, but not in depression. Mol Psychiatry 2006;11:514-522.
61. Boldrini M, Underwood MD, Hen R, Rosoklija GB, Dwork AJ, Mann JJ, et al: Antidepressants increase neural progenitor cells in the human hippocampus. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009;34: 2376-2389.
62. Sheline YI, Wang PW, Gado MH, Csernansky JG, Vannier MW: Hippocampal atrophy in recurrent major depression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996;93: 3908-3913.
63. Videbech P, Ravnkilde B: Hippocampal volume and depression: a meta-analysis of MRI studies. Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161:1957.
64. Sapolsky RM: Depression, antidepressants, and the shrinking hippocampus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98: 12320-12322.
65. Anacker C, Zunszain PA, Carvalho LA, Pariante C: The glucocorticoid receptor: Pivot of depression and of antidepressant treatment? Psychoneuroendocrinology 2010;36:415-425.
66. Pariante C, Pearce B, Pisell T, Sanchez C: The proinflammatory cytokine, interleukin-1α, reduces glucocorticoid receptor translocation and function. Endocrinology 1999;140:4359-4366.
67. Wang X, Wu H, Miller H: Interleukin 1alpha (IL-1alpha) induced activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibits glucocorticoid receptor function. Mol Psychiatry 2004;9:65-75.
68. Goleva E, Kisich KO, Leung DYM: A role for STAT5 in the pathogenesis of IL-2-induced glucocorticoid resistance. J Immunol 2002;169:5934-5940.
69. Onda K, Nagashima M, Kawakubo Y, Inoue S, Hirano T, Oka K: Mitogenactivated protein kinase kinase 1/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MEK-1/ERK) inhibitors sensitize reduced glucocorticoid response mediated by TNFalpha in human epidermal keratinocytes (HaCaT). Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006;351:266-272.
70. Xu Q, Goleva E, Ou L-S, Li L-B, Leung DYM: CD56+ cells induce steroid resistance in B cells exposed to IL-15. J Immunol 2004 ;172:7110-7115.
71. Pace TWW, Hu F, Miller AH: Activation of cAMP-protein kinase A abrogates STAT5-mediated inhibition of glucocorticoid receptor signaling by interferonalpha. Brain Behav Immun 2011;25: 1716-1724.
72. Weidenfeld J, Yirmiya R: Effects of bacterial endotoxin on the glucocorticoid feedback regulation of adrenocortical response to stress. Neuroimmunomodulation 1996;3:352-357.
73. Bener D, Wohlman A, Itzik A, Yirmiya R, Ben-Hur T, Weidenfeld J: Glucocorticoid resistance following herpes simplex-1 infection: role of hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors. Neuroendocrinology 2007;85:207-215.
74. Quan N, Avitsur R, Stark JL, He L, Shah M: Social stress increases the susceptibility to endotoxic shock. J Neuroimmunol 2001;115:36-45.
75. Quan N, Avitsur R, Stark JL, He L, Lai W: Molecular mechanisms of glucocorticoid resistance in splenocytes of socially stressed male mice. J Neuroimmunol 2003;137:51-58.
76. Engler H, Bailey MT, Engler A, Stinerjones LM, Quan N, Sheridan JF: Interleukin-1 receptor type 1-deficient mice fail to develop social stress-associated glucocorticoids resistance in the spleen. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2008;33: 108-117.
77. Maes M, Bosmans E, Meltzer H: Interleukin-1β: a putative mediator of HPA axis hyperactivity in major depression. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150: 1189-1193.
78. Fitzgerald P, O'Brien S, Scully P: Cutaneous glucocorticoid receptor sensitivity and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels in antidepressant-resistant depression. Psychol Med 2006;36:37-43.
79. Schuld A, Schmid D, Haack M, Holsboer F, Friess E, Pollmächer T: Hypothalamopituitary-adrenal function in patients with depressive disorders is correlated with baseline cytokine levels, but not with cytokine responses to hydrocortisone. J Psychiatr Res 2003;37:463-470.
80. Miller, Chen E, Sze J, Marin T, Arevalo JMG, Doll R, et al: A functional genomic fingerprint of chronic stress in humans: blunted glucocorticoid and increased NF-kB signaling. Biol Psychiatry 2008; 64:266-272.
81. Raison CL, Borisov AS, Woolwine BJ, Massung B, Vogt G, Miller AH: Interferon-a effects on diurnal hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal axis activity: relationship with proinflammatory cytokines and behavior. Mol Psychiatry 2008;15: 535-547.
82. Sasayama D, Hori H, Iijima Y, Teraishi T, Hattori K, Ota M, et al: Modulation of cortisol responses to the DEX/CRH test by polymorphisms of the interleukin-1beta gene in healthy adults. Behav Brain Sci 2011;7:23.
83. Lewis-Tuffin LJ, Cidlowski JA: The physiology of human glucocorticoid receptor beta (hGRbeta) and glucocorticoid resistance. Ann NY Acad Sci 2006;1069:1-9.
84. Webster JC, Oakley RH, Jewell CM, Cidlowski JA: Proinflammatory cytokines regulate human glucocorticoid receptor gene expression and lead to the accumulation of the dominant negative beta isoform: a mechanism for the generation of glucocorticoid resistance. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:6865-6870.
85. Kossintseva I, Wong S, Johnstone E: Proinflammatory cytokines inhibit human placental 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 activity through Ca2+ and cAMP pathways. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2006;2:282-288.
86. Emptoz-Bonneton A, Crave J: Corticosteroid-binding globulin synthesis regulation by cytokines and glucocorticoids in human hepatoblastomaderived (HepG2) cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82:3758-3762.
87. Bauer B, Hartz A: Tumor necrosis factor α and endothelin-1 increase P-glycoprotein expression and transport activity at the blood-brain barrier. Mol Pharmacol 2007;71:667-675.
88. Capuron L, Raison C: Association of exaggerated HPA axis response to the initial injection of interferon-alpha with development of depression during interferon-alpha therapy. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1342-1345.
89. Besedovsky H: Immune-neuroendocrine interactions: facts and hypotheses. Endocr Rev 1996;17:64-102.
90. Raber J, Koob GF, Bloom FE: Interferonalpha and transforming growth factorbeta 1 regulate corticotropin-releasing factor release from the amygdala: comparison with the hypothalamic response. Neurochem Int 1997;30:455-463.
91. Sheridan J, Stark J, Avitsur R: Social disruption, immunity, and susceptibility to viral infection: role of glucocorticoid insensitivity and NGF. Ann NY Acad Sci 2000;917:894-905.
92. Avitsur R, Powell N, Padgett DA, Sheridan JF: Social interactions, stress, and immunity. Neurol Clin 2009;29:285-293.
93. Rhen T, Cidlowski J: Brain interleukin-1 mediates chronic stress-induced depression in mice via adrenocortical activation and hippocampal neurogenesis suppression. N Engl J Med 2005;353:1711-1723.
94. Wang D, Lin W, Pan Y, Kuang X, Qi X, Sun H: Brain, behavior, and immunity chronic blockade of glucocorticoid receptors by RU486 enhances lipopolysaccharideinduced depressive-like behaviour and cytokine production in rats. Brain Behav Immun 2011;25:706-714.
95. Yang B, Trump RP, Shen Y, Mcnulty JA, Clifton LG, Stimpson SA, et al: RU486 did not exacerbate cytokine release in mice challenged with LPS nor in db/db mice. BMC Pharmacol 2008;10:1-10.
96. Yeager M, Pioli P, Guyre P: Cortisol exerts bi-phasic regulation of inflammation in humans. Dose Response 2011; 1949:332-347.
97. Warren MK, Vogel SN: Opposing effects of glucocorticoids on interferon-gammainduced murine macrophage Fc receptor and Ia antigen expression. J Immunol 1985;134:2462-2469.
98. Smyth GP, Stapleton PP, Freeman TA, Concannon EM, Mestre JR, et al: Glucocorticoid pretreatment induces cytokine overexpression and nuclear factor-B activation in macrophages. J Surg Res 2004;261:253-261.
99. Zhang T, Daynes RA: Macrophages from 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1-deficient mice exhibit an increased sensitivity to lipopolysaccharide stimulation due to TGF-β-mediated upregulation of SHIP1 expression. J Immunol 2007;179:6325-6335.
100. Frank MG, Miguel ZD, Watkins LR, Maier SF: Prior exposure to glucocorticoids sensitizes the neuroinflammatory and peripheral inflammatory responses to E. coli lipopolysaccharide. Brain Behav Immun 2010;24:19-30.
101. Johnson J, O'Connor K, Deak T, Stark M: Prior stressor exposure sensitizes LPSinduced cytokine production. Brain Behav Immun 2002;476:461-476.
102. Frank M, Thompson B, Watkins L: Glucocorticoids mediate stress-induced priming of microglial pro-inflammatory responses. Brain Behav Immun 2011;26: 337-345.
103. Goujon E, Parnet P, Laye S, Combe C: Stress downregulates lipopolysaccharide-induced expression of proinflammatory cytokines in the spleen, pituitary and brain. Brain Behav Immun 1995;9:292-303.
104. Barber A, Coyle S, Marano M: Glucocorticoid therapy alters hormonal and cytokine responses to endotoxin in man. J Immunol 1993;150:1999-2006.
105. Spriggs K, Cosmans D, Lioubins PJ, Dower K: Induction of an interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R) on monocytic cells. J Biol Chem 1990;265:22499-22505.
106. Snyers L, De Wit L, Content J: Glucocorticoid up-regulation of high-affinity interleukin-6 receptors on human epithelial cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990;87:2838-2842.
107. Munhoz, Lepsch LB, Kawamoto EM, Malta MB, Lima LDS, Avellar MCW, et al: Chronic unpredictable stress exacerbates lipopolysaccharide-induced activation of nuclear factor-kappaB in the frontal cortex and hippocampus via glucocorticoid secretion. J Neurochem 2006;26:3813-3820.
108. Madrigal JL, Moro MA, Lizasoain I, Lorenzo P, Castrillo A, Boscá L, et al: Inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in brain cortex after acute restraint stress is regulated by nuclear factor kappaB-mediated mechanisms. J Neurochem 2001;76:532-538.
109. Madrigal JLM, Hurtado O, Moro MA, Lizasoain I, Lorenzo P, Castrillo A, et al: The increase in TNF-alpha levels is implicated in NF-kappaB activation and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in brain cortex after immobilization stress. Neuropsychopharmacology 2002; 26:155-63.
110. Madrigal JLM, Moro MA, Lizasoain I, Lorenzo P, Fernández AP, Rodrigo J, et al: Induction of cyclooxygenase-2 accounts for restraint stress-induced oxidative status in rat brain. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003;28:1579-1588.
111. Busillo JM, Azzam KM, Cidlowski JA: Glucocorticoids sensitize the innate immune system through regulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. J Biol Chem 2011;286:38703-38713.
112. de Pablos RM, Villarán RF, Argüelles S, Herrera AJ, Venero JL, Ayala A, et al: Stress increases vulnerability to inflammation in the rat prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 2006;26:5709-5719.
113. Starkman MN, Gebarski SS, Berent S, Schteingart DE: Hippocampal formation volume, memory dysfunction, and cortisol levels in patients with Cushing's syndrome. Biol Psychiatry 1992;32:756-765.
114. Halbreich U, Asnis G, Shindledecker R: Cortisol secretion in endogenous depression. I. Basal plasma levels. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;42:904-908.
115. Fang VS, et al: Plasma ACTH and cortisol levels in depressed patients: relation to dexamethasone suppression test. Life Sci 1981;29:931-938.
116. Mirescu C, Gould E: Stress and adult neurogenesis. Hippocampus 2006;16: 233-238.
117. Joëls M, Karst H, Krugers HJ, Lucassen PJ: Chronic stress: implications for neuronal morphology, function and neurogenesis. Front Neuroendocrinol 2007;28: 72-96.
118. Ekdahl CT, Claasen J-H, Bonde S, Kokaia Z, Lindvall O: Inflammation is detrimental for neurogenesis in adult brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003;100: 13632-13637.
119. Monje ML, Toda H, Palmer TD: Inflammatory blockade restores adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Science 2003;302: 1760-1765.
120. Spulber S, Oprica M, Bartfai T, Winblad B, Schultzberg M: Blunted neurogenesis and gliosis due to transgenic overexpression of human soluble IL-1ra in the mouse. Eur J Neurosci 2008;27:549-558.
121. Sheline YI: Neuroimaging studies of mood disorder effects on the brain. Biol Psychiatry 2003;54:338-352.
122. Campbell S, Marriott M, Nahmias C, MacQueen GM: Lower hippocampal volume in patients suffering from depression: a meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:598.
123. McKinnon MC, Yucel K, Nazarov A, MacQueen GM: A meta-analysis examining clinical predictors of hippocampal volume in patients with major depressive disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2009;34:41-54.
124. Maes M, Yirmyia R, Noraberg J, Brene S, Hibbeln J, Perini G, et al: The inflammatory & neurodegenerative (I&ND) hypothesis of depression: leads for future research and new drug developments in depression. Metab Brain Dis 2009;24: 27-53.
125. Müller MB, Lucassen PJ, Yassouridis A, Hoogendijk WJ, Holsboer F, Swaab DF: Neither major depression nor glucocorticoid treatment affects the cellular integrity of the human hippocampus. Eur J Neurosci 2001;14:1603-1612.
126. Lucassen P, Holsboer F, Bauer J: Hippocampal apoptosis in major depression is a minor event and absent from subareas at risk for glucocorticoid overexposure. Am J Pathol 2001;158:453-468.
127. Sapolsky R, Pulsinelli WA: Glucocorticoids potentiate ischemic injury to neurons: therapeutic implications. Science 1985;229:1397-1400.
128. Czéh B, Lucassen PJ: What causes the hippocampal volume decrease in depression? Are neurogenesis, glial changes and apoptosis implicated? Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2007;257:250-260.
129. Nadeau S, Rivest S: Glucocorticoids play a fundamental role in protecting the brain during innate immune response. J Neurosci 2003;23:5536-5544.
130. O'Connor JC, Lawson MA, André C, Briley EM, Szegedi SS, Lestage J, et al: Induction of IDO by Bacille Calmette-Guérin is responsible for development of murine depressive-like behavior. J Immunol 2009;182:3202-3212.