Vagal activity is quadratically related to prosocial traits, prosocial emotions, and observer perceptions of prosociality

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Volumn 107, Issue 6, 2014, Pages 1051-1063

  Kogan, Aleksandr ^a   Oveis, Christopher ^b   Carr, Evan W ^b   Gruber, June ^c   Mauss, Iris B ^d   Shallcross, Amanda ^e   Impett, Emily A ^f   van der Lowe, Ilmo ^a   Hui, Bryant ^a   Cheng, Cecilia ^g   Keltner, Dacher ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^e NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^f UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^g UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

Author keywords

Cardiac vagal tone; Emotion; Heart rate variability; Respiratory sinus arrhythmia; Thin slicing

Indexed keywords

ADULT; EMOTION; EMPATHY; FEMALE; HUMAN; HUMAN RELATION; INDIVIDUALITY; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; PERCEPTION; PHYSIOLOGY; RESPIRATORY SINUS ARRHYTHMIA; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; VAGUS NERVE; YOUNG ADULT;

ADULT; EMOTIONS; EMPATHY; FEMALE; HUMANS; INDIVIDUALITY; INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; RESPIRATORY SINUS ARRHYTHMIA; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL PERCEPTION; VAGUS NERVE; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84925424633     PISSN: 00223514     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0037509     Document Type: Article

References (99)

1. Albrechtsen, J. S., Meissner, C. A., & Susa, K. J. (2009). Can intuition improve deception detection performance? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 1052-1055. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.05.017
2. Algoe, S. B. (2012). Find, remind, and bind: The functions of gratitude in everyday relationships. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6, 455-469. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00439.x
3. Algoe, S. B., & Haidt, J. (2009). Witnessing excellence in action: The "other praising" emotions of elevation, gratitude, and admiration. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 105-127. doi:10.1080/ 17439760802650519
4. Allen, J. J. B., Chambers, A. S., & Towers, D. N. (2007). The many metrics of cardiac chronotropy: A pragmatic primer and a brief comparison of metrics. Biological Psychology, 74, 243-262. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.08.005
5. Ambady, N., Bernieri, F. J., & Richeson, J. A. (2000). Toward a histology of social behavior: Judgmental accuracy from thin slices of the behavioral stream. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 32, 201-271. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(00)80006-4
6. Ambady, N., Hallahan, M., & Conner, B. (1999). Accuracy of judgments of sexual orientation from thin slices of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 538-547. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.3.538
7. Ambady, N., & Rosenthal, R. (1993). Half a minute: Predicting teacher evaluations from thin slices of nonverbal behavior and physical attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 431-441. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.64.3.431
8. Bartlett, M. Y., & DeSteno, D. (2006). Gratitude and prosocial behavior: Helping when it costs you. Psychological Science, 17, 319-325. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01705.x
9. Bartz, J. A., Zaki, J., Bolger, N., & Ochsner, K. N. (2011). Social effects of oxytocin in humans: Context and person matter. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 301-309. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.05.002
10. Batson, C. D., & Shaw, L. L. (1991). Evidence for altruism: Toward a pluralism of prosocial motives. Psychological Inquiry, 2, 107-122. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0202_1
11. Beauchaine, T. (2001). Vagal tone, development, and Gray's motivational theory: Toward an integrated model of autonomic nervous system func-tioning in psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 183-214. doi:10.1017/S0954579401002012
12. Berntson, G. G., Cacioppo, J. T., & Grossman, P. (2007). Whither vagal tone. Biological Psychology, 74, 295-300. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.08.006
13. Berntson, G. G., Norman, G. J., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2008). Cardiac autonomic balance versus cardiac regulatory capacity. Psychophysiology, 45, 643-652. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2008.00652.x
14. Berntson, G. G., Sarter, M., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1998). Anxiety and cardiovascular reactivity: The basal forebrain cholinergic link. Behavioral Brain Research, 94, 225-248. doi:10.1016/S0166-4328(98)00041-2
15. Borkenau, P., Mauer, N., Riemann, R., Spinath, F. M., & Angleitner, A. (2004). Thin slices of behavior as cues of personality and intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 599-614. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.86.4.599
16. Boyd, R., Gintis, H., Bowles, S., & Richerson, P. J. (2003). The evolution of altruistic punishment. PNAS: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100, 3531-3535. doi:10.1073/ pnas.0630443100
17. Butler, E. A., Wilhelm, F. H., & Gross, J. J. (2006). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia, emotion, and emotion regulation during social interaction. Psychophysiology, 43, 612-622. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2006.00467.x
18. Cheng, C., Wong, W., & Tsang, K. W. (2006). Perception of benefits and costs during SARS outbreak: An 18-month prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 870-879. doi:10.1037/0022- 006X.74.5.870
19. Clifford, G. D. (2006). ECG statistics, noise, artifacts, and missing data. In G. Clifford, F. Azuaje, and P. McSharry (Eds.), Advanced methods and tools for ECG data analysis (pp. 55-99). Boston, MA: Artech House.
20. Cohen, H., Kotler, M., Matar, M. A., & Kaplan, Z. (1997). Power spectral analysis of heart rate variability in posttraumatic stress disorder patients. Biological Psychiatry, 41, 627- 629. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(96) 00525-2
21. Côté, S., Kraus, M. W., Cheng, B. H., Oveis, C., van der Löwe, I., Lian, H., & Keltner, D. (2011). Social power facilitates the effect of prosocial orientation on empathic accuracy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 217-232. doi:10.1037/a0023171
22. Crockett, M. J., Apergis-Schoute, A., Herrmann, B., Lieberman, M., Müller, U., Robbins, T. W., & Clark, L. (2013). Serotonin modulates striatal responses to fairness and retaliation in humans. Journal of Neuroscience, 33, 3505-3513. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2761-12.2013
23. Crockett, M. J., Clark, L., Hauser, M. D., & Robbins, T. W. (2010). Serotonin selectively influences moral judgment and behavior through effects on harm aversion. PNAS: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 17433-17438. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1009396107
24. Dalack, G. W., & Roose, S. P. (1990). Perspectives on the relationship between cardiovascular disease and affective disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 51, 4-9.
25. de Geus, E. J. C., Willemsen, G. H. M., Klaver, C. H. A. M., & van Doornen, L. J. P. (1995). Ambulatory measurement of respiratory sinus arrhythmia and respiration rate. Biological Psychology, 41, 205-227. doi:10.1016/0301-0511(95)05137-6
26. Dekker, J. M., Crow, R. S., Folsom, A. R., Hannan, P. J., Liao, D., Swenne, C. A., & Schouten, E. G. (2000). Low heart rate variability in a 2-minute rhythm strip predicts risk of coronary heart disease and mortality from several causes: The ARIC Study. Circulation, 102, 1239-1244. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.102.11.1239
27. Denver, J. W., Reed, S. F., & Porges, S. W. (2007). Methodological issues in the quantification of respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Biological Psychology, 74, 286-294. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.09.005
28. Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Karbon, M., Murphy, B. C., Wosinski, M., Polazzi, L.,Juhnke, C. (1996). The relations of children's dispositional prosocial behavior to emotionality, regulation, and social functioning. Child Development, 67, 974-992. doi:10.2307/1131874
29. Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Murphy, B., Maszk, P., Smith, M., & Karbon, M. (1995). The role of emotionality and regulation in children's social functioning: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 66, 1360-1384. doi:10.2307/1131652
30. Fabes, R. A., & Eisenberg, N. (1997). Regulatory control and adults' stress-related responses to daily life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1107-1117. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.5.1107
31. Fehr, E., & Fischbacher, U. (2003, October 23). The nature of human altruism. Nature, 425, 785-791. doi:10.1038/nature02043
32. Fehr, E., & Gächter, S. (2002, January 10). Altruistic punishment in humans. Nature, 415, 137-140. doi:10.1038/415137a
33. Feinberg, M., Willer, R., & Keltner, D. (2012). Flustered and faithful: Embarrassment as a signal of prosociality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 81-97. doi:10.1037/a0025403
34. Fowler, J. H. (2005). Altruistic punishment and the origin of cooperation. PNAS: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102, 7047-7049. doi:10.1073/pnas.0500938102
35. Fowler, J. H., & Christakis, N. A. (2010). Cooperative behavior cascades in human social networks. PNAS: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 5334-5338. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0913149107
36. Fowler, K. A., Lilienfeld, S. O., & Patrick, C. J. (2009). Detecting psychopathy from thin slices of behavior. Psychological Assessment, 21, 68-78. doi:10.1037/a0014938
37. Fox, N. A., & Field, T. M. (1989). Individual differences in preschool entry behavior. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 10, 527-540. doi:10.1016/0193-3973(89)90025-7
38. Friedman, B. H., & Thayer, J. F. (1998). Autonomic balance revisited: Panic anxiety and heart rate variability. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 44, 133-151. doi:10.1016/S0022-3999(97)00202-X
39. Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D., & Simon-Thomas, E. (2010). Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 351-374. doi:10.1037/a0018807
40. Goldberg, L. R., Johnson, J. A., Eber, H. W., Hogan, R., Ashton, M. C., Cloninger, C. R., & Gough, H. G. (2006). The International Personality Item Pool and the future of public-domain personality measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 84-96. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2005.08.007
41. Gordon, A. M., Impett, E. A., Kogan, A., Oveis, C., & Keltner, D. (2012). To have and to hold: Gratitude promotes relationship maintenance in intimate bonds. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 257-274. doi:10.1037/a0028723
42. Grant, A. M., & Schwartz, B. (2011). Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 61-76. doi:10.1177/1745691610393523
43. Gruber, J., Harvey, A. G., & Purcell, A. (2011). What goes up can come down? A preliminary investigation of emotion reactivity and emotion recovery in bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 133, 457- 466. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.05.009
44. Gruber, J., Johnson, S. L., Oveis, C., & Keltner, D. (2008). Risk for mania and positive emotional responding: Too much of a good thing? Emotion, 8, 23-33. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.8.1.23
45. Gruber, J., Mauss, I. B., & Tamir, M. (2011). A dark side of happiness? How, when, and why happiness is not always good. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 222-233. doi:10.1177/1745691611406927
46. Gruber, J., Oveis, C., Keltner, D., & Johnson, S. L. (2011). A discrete emotions approach to positive emotion disturbance in depression. Cognition & Emotion, 25, 40-52. doi:10.1080/02699931003615984
47. Haidt, J. (2003). The moral emotions. In R. J. Davidson, K. R. Scherer, & H. H. Goldsmith (Eds.), Handbook of affective sciences (pp. 852-870). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
48. Harbaugh, W. T., Mayr, U., & Burghart, D. R. (2007, June 15). Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations. Science, 316, 1622-1625. doi:10.1126/science.1140738
49. Haug, T. T., Svebak, S., Hausken, T., Wilhelmsen, I., Berstad, A., & Ursin, H. (1994). Low vagal activity as mediating mechanism for the relationship between personality factors and gastric symptoms in functional dyspepsia. Psychosomatic Medicine, 56, 181-186. doi:10.1097/ 00006842-199405000-00001
50. Heilman, K. J., Connolly, S. D., Padilla, W. O., Wrzosek, M. I., Graczyk, P. A., & Porges, S. W. (2012). Sluggish vagal brake reactivity to physical exercise challenge in children with selective mutism. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 241-250. doi:10.1017/S0954579 411000800
51. Horberg, E. J., Oveis, C., & Keltner, D. (2011). Emotions as moral amplifiers: An appraisal tendency approach to the influences of distinct emotions upon moral judgment. Emotion Review, 3, 237-244. doi: 10.1177/1754073911402384
52. Impett, E. A., Gordon, A. M., Kogan, A., Oveis, C., Gable, S. L., & Keltner, D. (2010). Moving toward more perfect unions: Daily and long-term consequences of approach and avoidance goals in romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 948- 963. doi:10.1037/a0020271
53. Impett, E. A., Kogan, A., English, T., John, O., Oveis, C., Gordon, A. M., & Keltner, D. (2012). Suppression sours sacrifice: Emotional and relational costs of suppressing emotions in romantic relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 707-720. doi:10.1177/ 0146167212437249
54. Keltner, D., & Buswell, B. N. (1997). Embarrassment: Its distinct form and appeasement functions. Psychological Bulletin, 122, 250-270. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.122.3.250
55. Keltner, D., Horberg, E. J., & Oveis, C. (2006). Emotional intuitions and moral play. Social Justice Research, 19, 208-217. doi:10.1007/s11211- 006-0006-8
56. Keltner, D., Kogan, A., Piff, P. K., & Saturn, S. R. (2014). The sociocultural appraisals, values, and emotions (SAVE) framework of prosociality: Core processes from gene to meme. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 425-460. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115054
57. Keltner, D., & Oveis, C. (2007). Elevation. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social psychology (p. 283). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. doi:10.4135/9781412956253.n173
58. Kim, H. S., Sherman, D. K., Mojaverian, T., Sasaki, J. Y., Park, J., Suh, E. M., & Taylor, S. E. (2011). Gene-culture interaction: Oxytocin receptor polymorphism (OXTR) and emotion regulation. Social Psychological & Personality Science, 2, 665- 672. doi:10.1177/1948550 611405854
59. Kogan, A., Impett, E. A., Oveis, C., Hui, B., Gordon, A. M., & Keltner, D. (2010). When giving feels good: The intrinsic benefits of sacrifice in romantic relationships for the communally motivated. Psychological Science, 21, 1918-1924. doi:10.1177/0956797610388815
60. Kogan, A., Saslow, L. R., Impett, E. A., Oveis, C., Keltner, D., Rodrigues Saturn, S., & Saturn, S. R. (2011). Thin-slicing study of the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene and the evaluation and expression of the prosocial disposition. PNAS: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 19189-19192. doi:10.1073/ pnas.1112658108
61. Kok, B. E., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2010). Upward spirals of the heart: Autonomic flexibility, as indexed by vagal tone, reciprocally and prospectively predicts positive emotions and social connectedness. Biological Psychology, 85, 432-436. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.09.005
62. Kosfeld, M., Heinrichs, M., Zak, P. J., Fischbacher, U., & Fehr, E. (2005). Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature, 435, 673-676. doi:10.1038/nature03701
63. Kraus, M. W., & Keltner, D. (2009). Signs of socioeconomic status: A thin-slicing approach. Psychological Science, 20, 99-106. doi:10.1111/ j.1467-9280.2008.02251.x
64. Leary, M. R. (2001). The self in shyness. In L. Crozier & R. Aldens (Eds.), The self, shyness, and social anxiety: A handbook of concepts, research, and interventions. New York, NY: Wiley.
65. Lewis, G. F., Furman, S. A., McCool, M. F., & Porges, S. W. (2012). Statistical strategies to quantify respiratory sinus arrhythmia: Are commonly used metrics equivalent? Biological Psychology, 89, 349-364. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.11.009
66. Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224- 253. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224
67. Norenzayan, A., & Shariff, A. F. (2008, October 3). The origin and evolution of religious prosociality. Science, 322, 58-62. doi:10.1126/ science.1158757
68. Oishi, S., Diener, E., & Lucas, R. (2007). The optimum level of well-being: Can people be too happy? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 346-360. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00048.x
69. Oltmanns, T. F., Friedman, J. N., Fiedler, E. R., & Turkheimer, E. (2004). Perceptions of people with personality disorders based on thin slices of behavior. Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 216-229. doi:10.1016/ S0092-6566(03)00066-7
70. Oveis, C., Cohen, A. B., Gruber, J., Shiota, M. N., Haidt, J., & Keltner, D. (2009). Resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia is associated with tonic positive emotionality. Emotion, 9, 265-270. doi:10.1037/a0015383
71. Oveis, C., Gruber, J., Keltner, D., Stamper, J. L., & Boyce, W. T. (2009). Smile intensity and warm touch as thin slices of child and family affective style. Emotion, 9, 544-548. doi:10.1037/a0016300
72. Oveis, C., Horberg, E. J., & Keltner, D. (2010). Compassion, pride, and social intuitions of self- other similarity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 618-630. doi:10.1037/a0017628
73. Oveis, C., Kogan, A., Liu, M. Y., & Keltner, D. (2014). Laughter conveys status. Manuscript submitted for publication.
74. Park, G., van Bavel, J. J., Vasey, M. W., & Thayer, J. F. (2012). Cardiac vagal tone predicts inhibited attention to fearful faces. Emotion, 12, 1292-1302. doi:10.1037/a0028528
75. Piff, P. K., Stancato, D., Côté, S., Mendoza-Dentona, R., & Keltner, D. (2012). Higher social class predicts increased unethical behavior. PNAS: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109, 4086-4091. doi:10.1073/pnas.1118373109
76. Porges, S. W. (1995). Orienting in a defensive world: Mammalian modifications of our evolutionary heritage. A polyvagal theory. Psychophysiology, 32, 301-318. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1995.tb01213.x
77. Porges, S. W. (2001). The polyvagal theory: Phylogenetic substrates of a social nervous system. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 42, 123-146. doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(01)00162-3
78. Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological Psychology, 74, 116-143. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.009
79. Rand, D. G., Dreber, A., Ellingsen, T., Fudenberg, D., & Nowak, M. A. (2009, September 4). Positive interactions promote public cooperation. Science, 325, 1272-1275. doi:10.1126/science.1177418
80. Rodrigues, S. M., Saslow, L. R., Garcia, N., John, O. P., & Keltner, D. (2009). Oxytocin receptor genetic variation relates to empathy and stress reactivity in humans. PNAS: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 21437-21441. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0909579106
81. Rottenberg, J. (2007). Cardiac vagal control in depression: A critical analysis. Biological Psychology, 74, 200-211. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho .2005.08.010
82. Rottenberg, J., Clift, A., Bolden, S., & Salomon, K. (2007). RSA fluctuation in major depressive disorder. Psychophysiology, 44, 450-458. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00509.x
83. Rottenberg, J., Ray, R. D., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Emotion elicitation using films. In J. A. Coan & J. J. B. Allen (Eds.), The handbook of emotion elicitation and assessment (pp. 9-28). London, England: Oxford University Press.
84. Rottenberg, J., Wilhelm, F. H., & Gross, J. J. (2001). Low respiratory sinus arrhythmia as a marker of episodic major depression. Psychophysiology, 38, S83-S183.
85. Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069-1081. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069
86. Schnall, S., Roper, J., & Fessler, D. M. (2010). Elevation leads to altruistic behavior. Psychological Science, 21, 315-320. doi:10.1177/ 0956797609359882
87. Schultz, S. K., Anderson, E. A., & van de Borne, P. (1997). Heart rate variability before and after treatment with electroconvulsive therapy. Journal of Affective Disorders, 44, 13-20. doi:10.1016/S0165- 0327(97)01443-2
88. Segerstrom, S. C., & Nes, L. S. (2007). Heart rate variability reflects self-regulatory strength, effort, and fatigue. Psychological Science, 18, 275-281. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01888.x
89. Shariff, A. F., & Norenzayan, A. (2007). God is watching you: Priming God concepts increases prosocial behavior in an anonymous economic game. Psychological Science, 18, 803-809. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280 .2007.01983.x
90. Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., & John, O. P. (2006). Positive emotion dispositions differentially associated with Big Five personality and attachment style. Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 61-71. doi:10.1080/ 17439760500510833
91. Sober, E., & Wilson, D. S. (1998). Unto others: The evolution and psychology of unselfish behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.
92. Srivastava, S., Tamir, M., McGonigal, K. M., John, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2009). The social costs of emotional suppression: A prospective study of the transition to college. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 883-897. doi:10.1037/a0014755
93. Stifter, C. A., Fox, N. A., & Porges, S. W. (1989). Facial expressivity and vagal tone in 5- and 10-month-old infants. Infant Behavior & Development, 12, 127-137. doi:10.1016/0163-6383(89)90001-5
94. Tarvainen, M. P., Niskanen, J.-P., Lipponen, J. A., Ranta-Aho, P. O., & Karjalainen, P. A. (2014). Kubios HRV-heart rate variability analysis software. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 113, 210- 220. doi:10.1016/j.cmpb.2013.07.024
95. Valdesolo, P., & Desteno, D. (2011). Synchrony and the social tuning of compassion. Emotion, 11, 262-266. doi:10.1037/a0021302
96. van Kleef, G. A., Oveis, C., van der Löwe, I., LuoKogan, A., Goetz, J., & Keltner, D. (2008). Power, distress, and compassion: Turning a blind eye to the suffering of others. Psychological Science, 19, 1315-1322. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02241.x
97. Volkers, A. C., Tulen, J. H., van den Broek, W. W., Bruyn, J. A., Passchier, J., & Pepplinkhuizen, L. (2004). Effects of imipramine, fluvoxamine, and depressive mood on autonomic cardiac functioning in major depressive disorder. Pharmacopsychiatry, 37, 18-25. doi:10.1055/s-2004- 815470
98. Wang, Z., Lü, W., & Qin, R. (2013). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia is associated with trait positive affect and positive emotional expressivity. Biological Psychology, 93, 190-196. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.12 .006
99. Wilhelm, F. H., Grossman, P., & Roth, W. T. (1999). Analysis of cardiovascular regulation. Biomedical Sciences Instrumentation, 35, 135-140.