British Society for Medical Mycology best practice recommendations for the diagnosis of serious fungal diseases

The Lancet Infectious Diseases

Volumn 15, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 461-474

  Schelenz, Silke ^a   Barnes, Rosemary A ^b   Barton, Richard C ^c   Cleverley, Joanne R ^d   Lucas, Sebastian B ^e   Kibbler, Christopher C ^f   Denning, David W ^g  

^a ROYAL BROMPTON HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF WALES   (United Kingdom)

^c LEEDS GENERAL INFIRMARY   (United Kingdom)

^d ROYAL FREE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^e ST THOMAS HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^f UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^g MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIFUNGAL AGENT;

ALLERGIC BRONCHOPULMONARY ASPERGILLOSIS; ANTIBODY DETECTION; ANTIGEN DETECTION; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INFECTION; FUNGAL SINUSITIS; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; INVASIVE ASPERGILLOSIS; LABORATORY TEST; MEDICAL INFORMATION; MYCOLOGY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RADIOLOGY; REVIEW; SYSTEMIC MYCOSIS; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; MYCOSES; PATHOLOGY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PROCEDURES; UNITED KINGDOM;

CLINICAL LABORATORY TECHNIQUES; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; GREAT BRITAIN; HUMANS; MYCOSES; PATHOLOGY; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; RADIOLOGY;

EID: 84925378425     PISSN: 14733099     EISSN: 14744457     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(15)70006-X     Document Type: Review

References (161)

1. Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ Epidemiology of invasive mycoses in North America. Crit Rev Microbiol 2010, 36:1-53.
2. Lortholary O, Gangneux JP, Sitbon K, et al. Epidemiological trends in invasive aspergillosis in France: the SAIF network (2005-2007). Clin Microbiol Infect 2011, 17:1882-1889.
3. Schelenz S Management of candidiasis in the intensive care unit. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008, 61(suppl 1):i31-i34.
4. Guinea J, Torres-Narbona M, Gijon P, et al. Pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: incidence, risk factors, and outcome. Clin Microbiol Infect 2010, 16:870-877.
5. Hayes GE, Denning DW Frequency, diagnosis and management of fungal respiratory infections. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2013, 19:259-265.
6. Nivoix Y, Velten M, Letscher-Bru V, et al. Factors associated with overall and attributable mortality in invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 2008, 47:1176-1184.
7. Dignani MC Epidemiology of invasive fungal diseases on the basis of autopsy reports. F1000Prime Rep 2014, 6:81.
8. Perfect JR Fungal diagnosis: how do we do it and can we do better?. Curr Med Res Opin 2013, 29(suppl 4):3-11.
9. De Pauw B, Walsh TJ, Donnelly JP, et al. Revised definitions of invasive fungal disease from the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer/Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group (EORTC/MSG) Consensus Group. Clin Infect Dis 2008, 46:1813-1821.
10. Denning DW, Kibbler CC, Barnes RA British Society for Medical Mycology proposed standards of care for patients with invasive fungal infections. Lancet Infect Dis 2003, 3:230-240.
11. Schelenz S, Barnes RA, Kibbler CC, Jones BL, Denning DW Standards of care for patients with invasive fungal infections within the United Kingdom: a national audit. J Infect 2009, 58:145-153.
12. Hassan IA, Critten P, Isalska B, Denning DW Audit of laboratory mycology services for the management of patients with fungal infections in the northwest of England. J Clin Pathol 2006, 59:759-763.
13. Ascioglu S, Rex JH, de Pauw B, et al. Defining opportunistic invasive fungal infections in immunocompromised patients with cancer and hematopoietic stem cell transplants: an international consensus. Clin Infect Dis 2002, 34:7-14.
14. Cuenca-Estrella M, Verweij PE, Arendrup MC, et al. ESCMID* guideline for the diagnosis and management of Candida diseases 2012: diagnostic procedures. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012, 18(suppl 7):9-18.
15. Yuen KY, Woo PC, Ip MS, et al. Stage-specific manifestation of mold infections in bone marrow transplant recipients: risk factors and clinical significance of positive concentrated smears. Clin Infect Dis 1997, 25:37-42.
16. Plorde JJ, Tenover FC, Carlson LG Specimen volume versus yield in the BACTEC blood culture system. J Clin Microbiol 1985, 22:292-295.
17. Alexander BD, Pfaller MA Contemporary tools for the diagnosis and management of invasive mycoses. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 43(suppl 1):S15-S27.
18. Kosmin AR, Fekete T Use of fungal blood cultures in an academic medical center. J Clin Microbiol 2008, 46:3800-3801.
19. Stone NR, Gorton RL, Barker K, Ramnarain P, Kibbler CC Evaluation of PNA-FISH yeast traffic light for rapid identification of yeast directly from positive blood cultures and assessment of clinical impact. J Clin Microbiol 2013, 51:1301-1302.
20. Farina C, Perin S, Andreoni S, et al. Evaluation of the peptide nucleic acid fluorescence in situ hybridisation technology for yeast identification directly from positive blood cultures: an Italian experience. Mycoses 2012, 55:388-392.
21. Shepard JR, Addison RM, Alexander BD, et al. Multicenter evaluation of the Candida albicans/Candida glabrata peptide nucleic acid fluorescent in situ hybridization method for simultaneous dual-color identification of C. albicans and C. glabrata directly from blood culture bottles. J Clin Microbiol 2008, 46:50-55.
22. Gorton RL, Stone NARH, Ramnarain P, Barker K, Mchugh TD, Kibbler CC A comparison of three rapid identification techniques for the identification of yeasts from positive blood cultures: Gram's stain, PNA-FISH and MALDI-TOF. Mycoses 2011, 54:78.
23. Horvath JA, Dummer S The use of respiratory-tract cultures in the diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Am J Med 1996, 100:171-178.
24. McCarthy DS, Pepys J Allergic broncho-pulmonary aspergillosis. Clinical immunology. 2. Skin, nasal and bronchial tests. Clin Allergy 1971, 1:415-432.
25. Reichenberger F, Habicht J, Matt P, et al. Diagnostic yield of bronchoscopy in histologically proven invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Bone Marrow Transplant 1999, 24:1195-1199.
26. Einsele H, Quabeck K, Muller KD, et al. Prediction of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis from colonisation of lower respiratory tract before marrow transplantation. Lancet 1998, 352:1443.
27. Maschmeyer G, Beinert T, Buchheidt D, et al. Diagnosis and antimicrobial therapy of lung infiltrates in febrile neutropenic patients: guidelines of the infectious diseases working party of the German Society of Haematology and Oncology. Eur J Cancer 2009, 45:2462-2472.
28. McWhinney PH, Kibbler CC, Hamon MD, et al. Progress in the diagnosis and management of aspergillosis in bone marrow transplantation: 13 years' experience. Clin Infect Dis 1993, 17:397-404.
29. Hargreaves NJ, Kadzakumanja O, Phiri S, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients being registered for smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis in Malawi. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2001, 95:402-408.
30. Turner D, Schwarz Y, Yust I Induced sputum for diagnosing Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV patients: new data, new issues. Eur Respir J 2003, 21:204-208.
31. Kovacs JA, Hiemenz JW, Macher AM, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: a comparison between patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and patients with other immunodeficiencies. Ann Intern Med 1984, 100:663-671.
32. Vargas SL, Ponce CA, Gallo M, et al. Near-universal prevalence of Pneumocystis and associated increase in mucus in the lungs of infants with sudden unexpected death. Clin Infect Dis 2013, 56:171-179.
33. Gupta AK Postgraduate institute management protocol for invasive Aspergillus flavus sinusitis: is it effective?. Int J Infect Dis 2009, 13:134-149.
34. Antinori S, Radice A, Galimberti L, Magni C, Fasan M, Parravicini C The role of cryptococcal antigen assay in diagnosis and monitoring of cryptococcal meningitis. J Clin Microbiol 2005, 43:5828-5829.
35. Sanchez-Portocarrero J, Perez-Cecilia E, Corral O, Romero-Vivas J, Picazo JJ The central nervous system and infection by Candida species. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2000, 37:169-179.
36. Navarro EE, Almario JS, King C, Bacher J, Pizzo PA, Walsh TJ Detection of Candida casts in experimental renal candidiasis: implications for the diagnosis and pathogenesis of upper urinary tract infection. J Med Vet Mycol 1994, 32:415-426.
37. Yeghen T, Kibbler CC, Prentice HG, et al. Management of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in hematology patients: a review of 87 consecutive cases at a single institution. Clin Infect Dis 2000, 31:859-868.
38. Roden MM, Zaoutis TE, Buchanan WL, et al. Epidemiology and outcome of zygomycosis: a review of 929 reported cases. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 41:634-653.
39. Dunbar SA, Eason RA, Musher DM, Clarridge JE Microscopic examination and broth culture of cerebrospinal fluid in diagnosis of meningitis. J Clin Microbiol 1998, 36:1617-1620.
40. Jarvis JN, Meintjes G, Williams A, Brown Y, Crede T, Harrison TS Adult meningitis in a setting of high HIV and TB prevalence: findings from 4961 suspected cases. BMC Infect Dis 2010, 10:67.
41. Bakare N, Rickerts V, Bargon J, Just-Nubling G Prevalence of Aspergillus fumigatus and other fungal species in the sputum of adult patients with cystic fibrosis. Mycoses 2003, 46:19-23.
42. Ng VL, Yajko DM, McPhaul LW, et al. Evaluation of an indirect fluorescent-antibody stain for detection of Pneumocystis carinii in respiratory specimens. J Clin Microbiol 1990, 28:975-979.
43. Gopinathan U, Garg P, Fernandes M, Sharma S, Athmanathan S, Rao GN The epidemiological features and laboratory results of fungal keratitis: a 10-year review at a referral eye care center in South India. Cornea 2002, 21:555-559.
44. Weinberg JM, Koestenblatt EK, Tutrone WD, Tishler HR, Najarian L Comparison of diagnostic methods in the evaluation of onychomycosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2003, 49:137-193.
45. Alvarez F, Bandi V, Stager C, Guntupalli KK Detection of Pneumocystis carinii in tracheal aspirates of intubated patients using calcofluor-white (Fungi-Fluor) and immunofluorescence antibody (Genetic Systems) stains. Crit Care Med 1997, 25:948-952.
46. Procop GW, Haddad S, Quinn J, et al. Detection of Pneumocystis jirovecii in respiratory specimens by four staining methods. J Clin Microbiol 2004, 42:3333-3335.
47. Cregan P, Yamamoto A, Lum A, VanDerHeide T, MacDonald M, Pulliam L Comparison of four methods for rapid detection of Pneumocystis carinii in respiratory specimens. J Clin Microbiol 1990, 28:2432-2436.
48. Lautenschlager I, Lyytikainen O, Jokipii L, et al. Immunodetection of Pneumocystis carinii in bronchoalveolar lavage specimens compared with methenamine silver stain. J Clin Microbiol 1996, 34:728-730.
49. Ng VL, Virani NA, Chaisson RE, et al. Rapid detection of Pneumocystis carinii using a direct fluorescent monoclonal antibody stain. J Clin Microbiol 1990, 28:2228-2233.
50. McTaggart LR, Wengenack NL, Richardson SE Validation of the MycAssay Pneumocystis kit for detection of Pneumocystis jirovecii in bronchoalveolar lavage specimens by comparison to a laboratory standard of direct immunofluorescence microscopy, real-time PCR, or conventional PCR. J Clin Microbiol 2012, 50:1856-1869.
51. Lu Y, Ling G, Qiang C, et al. PCR diagnosis of Pneumocystis pneumonia: a bivariate meta-analysis. J Clin Microbiol 2011, 49:4361-4363.
52. Naryshkin S, Daniels J, Freno E, Cunningham L Cytology of treated and minimal Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and a pitfall of the Grocott methenamine silver stain. Diagn Cytopathol 1991, 7:41-47.
53. Nassar A, Zapata M, Little JV, Siddiqui MT Utility of reflex Gomori methenamine silver staining for Pneumocystis jirovecii on bronchoalveolar lavage cytologic specimens: a review. Diagn Cytopathol 2006, 34:719-723.
54. Tregnago R, Xavier RG, Pereira RP, Prolla JC The diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia by cytologic evaluation of Papanicolaou and Leishman-stained bronchoalveolar specimens in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Cytopathology 1993, 4:77-84.
55. Schumann GB, Swensen JJ Comparison of Papanicolaou's stain with the Gomori methenamine silver (GMS) stain for the cytodiagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. Am J Clin Pathol 1991, 95:583-586.
56. Homer KS, Wiley EL, Smith AL, et al. Monoclonal antibody to Pneumocystis carinii. Comparison with silver stain in bronchial lavage specimens. Am J Clin Pathol 1992, 97:619-624.
57. Saubolle MA, McKellar PP, Sussland D Epidemiologic, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of coccidioidomycosis. J Clin Microbiol 2007, 45:26-30.
58. Sarosi GA, Lawrence JP, Smith DK, Thomas A, Hobohm DW, Kelley PC Rapid diagnostic evaluation of bronchial washings in patients with suspected coccidioidomycosis. Semin Respir Infect 2001, 16:238-241.
59. Yu VL, Muder RR, Poorsattar A Significance of isolation of Aspergillus from the respiratory tract in diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Results from a three-year prospective study. Am J Med 1986, 81:249-254.
60. Martino P, Raccah R, Gentile G, Venditti M, Girmenia C, Mandelli F Aspergillus colonization of the nose and pulmonary aspergillosis in neutropenic patients: a retrospective study. Haematologica 1989, 74:263-265.
61. Chakrabarti A, Sethi S, Raman DS, Behera D Eight-year study of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis in an Indian teaching hospital. Mycoses 2002, 45:295-299.
62. Weiland D, Ferguson RM, Peterson PK, Snover DC, Simmons RL, Najarian JS Aspergillosis in 25 renal transplant patients. Epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management. Ann Surg 1983, 198:622-629.
63. Nalesnik MA, Myerowitz RL, Jenkins R, Lenkey J, Herbert D Significance of Aspergillus species isolated from respiratory secretions in the diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. J Clin Microbiol 1980, 11:370-376.
64. Treger TR, Visscher DW, Bartlett MS, Smith JW Diagnosis of pulmonary infection caused by Aspergillus: usefulness of respiratory cultures. J Infect Dis 1985, 152:572-576.
65. Greub G, Bille J Aspergillus species isolated from clinical specimens: suggested clinical and microbiological criteria to determine significance. Clin Microbiol Infect 1998, 4:710-716.
66. Bulpa P, Dive A, Sibille Y Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 2007, 30:782-800.
67. Felton TW, Baxter C, Moore CB, Roberts SA, Hope WW, Denning DW Efficacy and safety of posaconazole for chronic pulmonary aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 2010, 51:1383-1391.
68. Sobel JD, Fisher JF, Kauffman CA, Newman CA Candida urinary tract infections-epidemiology. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 52(suppl 6):S433-S436.
69. Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes D, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2009, 48:503-535.
70. Hamilton JR, Noble A, Denning DW, Stevens DA Performance of cryptococcus antigen latex agglutination kits on serum and cerebrospinal fluid specimens of AIDS patients before and after pronase treatment. J Clin Microbiol 1991, 29:333-339.
71. Goodman JS, Kaufman L, Koenig MG Diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis. Value of immunologic detection of cryptococcal antigen. N Engl J Med 1971, 285:434-436.
72. Kwong-Chung KJB, Bennett JE Cryptococcosis. Medical Mycology 1992, 397-466. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia. K.J.B. Kwong-Chung, J.E. Bennett (Eds.).
73. Gray GC, McCarthy T, Lebeck MG, et al. Genotype prevalence and risk factors for severe clinical adenovirus infection, United States 2004-2006. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 45:1120-1131.
74. Wheat LJ, Musial CE, Jenny-Avital E Diagnosis and management of central nervous system histoplasmosis. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 40:844-852.
75. Maertens J, Theunissen K, Verhoef G, et al. Galactomannan and computed tomography-based preemptive antifungal therapy in neutropenic patients at high risk for invasive fungal infection: a prospective feasibility study. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 41:1242-1250.
76. Girmenia C, Micozzi A, Gentile G, et al. Clinically driven diagnostic antifungal approach in neutropenic patients: a prospective feasibility study. J Clin Oncol 2010, 28:667-674.
77. Upton A, Kirby KA, Carpenter P, Boeckh M, Marr KA Invasive aspergillosis following hematopoietic cell transplantation: outcomes and prognostic factors associated with mortality. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 44:531-540.
78. Gade W, Hinnefeld SW, Babcock LS, et al. Comparison of the PREMIER cryptococcal antigen enzyme immunoassay and the latex agglutination assay for detection of cryptococcal antigens. J Clin Microbiol 1991, 29:1616-1619.
79. Babady NE, Bestrom JE, Jespersen DJ, et al. Evaluation of three commercial latex agglutination kits and a commercial enzyme immunoassay for the detection of cryptococcal antigen. Med Mycol 2009, 47:336-338.
80. Jarvis JN, Percival A, Bauman S, et al. Evaluation of a novel point-of-care cryptococcal antigen test on serum, plasma, and urine from patients with HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 53:1019-1023.
81. Lindsley MD, Mekha N, Baggett HC, et al. Evaluation of a newly developed lateral flow immunoassay for the diagnosis of cryptococcosis. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 53:321-325.
82. Lin TY, Yeh KM, Lin JC, Wang NC, Peng MY, Chang FY Cryptococcal disease in patients with or without human immunodeficiency virus: clinical presentation and monitoring of serum cryptococcal antigen titers. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2009, 42:220-226.
83. Lortholary O, Fontanet A, Memain N, Martin A, Sitbon K, Dromer F Incidence and risk factors of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome complicating HIV-associated cryptococcosis in France. AIDS 2005, 19:1043-1049.
84. Marr KA, Balajee SA, McLaughlin L, Tabouret M, Bentsen C, Walsh TJ Detection of galactomannan antigenemia by enzyme immunoassay for the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis: variables that affect performance. J Infect Dis 2004, 190:641-649.
85. Wingard JR, Carter SL, Walsh TJ, et al. Randomized, double-blind trial of fluconazole versus voriconazole for prevention of invasive fungal infection after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation. Blood 2010, 116:5111-5118.
86. Pfeiffer CD, Fine JP, Safdar N Diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis using a galactomannan assay: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 42:1417-1427.
87. Leeflang MM, Debets-Ossenkopp YJ, Visser CE, et al. Galactomannan detection for invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromized patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008, 4. CD007394.
88. D'Haese J, Theunissen K, Vermeulen E, et al. Detection of galactomannan in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid samples of patients at risk for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis: analytical and clinical validity. J Clin Microbiol 2012, 50:1258-1263.
89. Pasqualotto AC, Xavier MO, Sanchez LB, et al. Diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis in lung transplant recipients by detection of galactomannan in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Transplantation 2010, 90:306-311.
90. Luong ML, Clancy CJ, Vadnerkar A, et al. Comparison of an Aspergillus real-time polymerase chain reaction assay with galactomannan testing of bronchoalvelolar lavage fluid for the diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in lung transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 52:1218-1226.
91. Meersseman W, Lagrou K, Maertens J, et al. Galactomannan in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid: a tool for diagnosing aspergillosis in intensive care unit patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008, 177:27-34.
92. Orlopp K, von Lilienfeld-Toal M, Marklein G, et al. False positivity of the Aspergillus galactomannan Platelia ELISA because of piperacillin/tazobactam treatment: does it represent a clinical problem?. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008, 62:1109-1112.
93. Mikulska M, Furfaro E, Del Bono V, et al. Piperacillin/tazobactam (Tazocin) seems to be no longer responsible for false-positive results of the galactomannan assay. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012, 67:1746-1748.
94. Karageorgopoulos DE, Vouloumanou EK, Ntziora F, Michalopoulos A, Rafailidis PI, Falagas ME β-D-glucan assay for the diagnosis of invasive fungal infections: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 52:750-770.
95. Onishi A, Sugiyama D, Kogata Y, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of serum 1,3-β-D-glucan for Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia, invasive candidiasis, and invasive aspergillosis: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Microbiol 2012, 50:7-15.
96. Pickering JW, Sant HW, Bowles CA, Roberts WL, Woods GL Evaluation of a (1->3)-β-D-glucan assay for diagnosis of invasive fungal infections. J Clin Microbiol 2005, 43:5957-5962.
97. Fujita S, Takamura T, Nagahara M, Hashimoto T Evaluation of a newly developed down-flow immunoassay for detection of serum mannan antigens in patients with candidaemia. J Med Microbiol 2006, 55:537-543.
98. Barton RC, Hobson RP, Denton M, et al. Serologic diagnosis of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis in patients with cystic fibrosis through the detection of immunoglobulin G to Aspergillus fumigatus. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2008, 62:287-291.
99. Agarwal R, Chakrabarti A, Shah A, et al. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis: review of literature and proposal of new diagnostic and classification criteria. Clin Exp Allergy 2013, 43:850-873.
100. White PL, Barton R, Guiver M, et al. A consensus on fungal polymerase chain reaction diagnosis?: a United Kingdom-Ireland evaluation of polymerase chain reaction methods for detection of systemic fungal infections. J Mol Diagn 2006, 8:376-384.
101. White PL, Linton CJ, Perry MD, Johnson EM, Barnes RA The evolution and evaluation of a whole blood polymerase chain reaction assay for the detection of invasive aspergillosis in hematology patients in a routine clinical setting. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 42:479-486.
102. White PL, Bretagne S, Klingspor L, et al. Aspergillus PCR: one step closer to standardization. J Clin Microbiol 2010, 48:1231-1240.
103. White PL, Mengoli C, Bretagne S, et al. Evaluation of Aspergillus PCR protocols for testing serum specimens. J Clin Microbiol 2011, 49:3842-3848.
104. Barnes RA, White PL, Bygrave C, Evans N, Healy B, Kell J Clinical impact of enhanced diagnosis of invasive fungal disease in high-risk haematology and stem cell transplant patients. J Clin Pathol 2009, 62:64-69.
105. Morrissey CO, Chen SC, Sorrell TC, et al. Galactomannan and PCR versus culture and histology for directing use of antifungal treatment for invasive aspergillosis in high-risk haematology patients: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis 2013, 13:519-528.
106. Nguyen MH, Peacock JE, Tanner DC, et al. Therapeutic approaches in patients with candidemia. Evaluation in a multicenter, prospective, observational study. Arch Intern Med 1995, 155:2429-2435.
107. Mengoli C, Cruciani M, Barnes RA, Loeffler J, Donnelly JP Use of PCR for diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2009, 9:89-96.
108. Baxter CG, Jones AM, Webb K, Denning DW Homogenisation of cystic fibrosis sputum by sonication-an essential step for Aspergillus PCR. J Microbiol Methods 2011, 85:75-81.
109. Denning DW, Park S, Lass-Florl C, et al. High-frequency triazole resistance found In nonculturable Aspergillus fumigatus from lungs of patients with chronic fungal disease. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 52:1123-1129.
110. Tuon FF A systematic literature review on the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from bronchoalveolar lavage clinical samples. Rev Iberoam Micol 2007, 24:89-94.
111. Hauser PM, Bille J, Lass-Florl C, et al. Multicenter, prospective clinical evaluation of respiratory samples from subjects at risk for Pneumocystis jirovecii infection by use of a commercial real-time PCR assay. J Clin Microbiol 2011, 49:1872-1878.
112. Barnes RA, Stocking K, Bowden S, Poynton MH, White PL Prevention and diagnosis of invasive fungal disease in high-risk patients within an integrative care pathway. J Infect 2013, 67:206-214.
113. Rogers TR, Morton CO, Springer J, et al. Combined real-time PCR and galactomannan surveillance improves diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis in high risk patients with haematological malignancies. Br J Haematol 2013, 161:517-524.
114. Springer J, Morton CO, Perry M, et al. Multicenter comparison of serum and whole-blood specimens for detection of Aspergillus DNA in high-risk hematological patients. J Clin Microbiol 2013, 51:1445-1450.
115. White PL, Parr C, Thornton C, Barnes RA Evaluation of real-time PCR, galactomannan enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and a novel lateral-flow device for diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. J Clin Microbiol 2013, 51:1510-1516.
116. Marr KA, Laverdiere M, Gugel A, Leisenring W Antifungal therapy decreases sensitivity of the Aspergillus galactomannan enzyme immunoassay. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 40:1762-1769.
117. Kami M, Machida U, Okuzumi K, et al. Effect of fluconazole prophylaxis on fungal blood cultures: an autopsy-based study involving 720 patients with haematological malignancy. Br J Haematol 2002, 117:40-46.
118. McCulloch E, Ramage G, Rajendran R, et al. Antifungal treatment affects the laboratory diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis. J Clin Pathol 2012, 65:83-86.
119. Nguyen MH, Leather H, Clancy CJ, et al. Galactomannan testing in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid facilitates the diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with hematologic malignancies and stem cell transplant recipients. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2011, 17:1043-1050.
120. Reinwald M, Hummel M, Kovalevskaya E, et al. Therapy with antifungals decreases the diagnostic performance of PCR for diagnosing invasive aspergillosis in bronchoalveolar lavage samples of patients with haematological malignancies. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012, 67:2260-2267.
121. Tsolaki AG, Miller RF, Wakefield AE Oropharyngeal samples for genotyping and monitoring response to treatment in AIDS patients with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Med Microbiol 1999, 48:897-905.
122. Koo S, Baden LR, Marty FM Post-diagnostic kinetics of the (1->3)-β-D-glucan assay in invasive aspergillosis, invasive candidiasis and Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012, 18:E122-E127.
123. Baxter CG, Denning DW, Jones AM, Todd A, Moore CB, Richardson MD Performance of two Aspergillus IgG EIA assays compared with the precipitin test in chronic and allergic aspergillosis. Clin Microbiol Infect 2013, 19:E197-E204.
124. Antifungal agents. Breakpoint tables for interpretation of MICs EUCAST, (accessed Jan 19, 2015). http://www.eucast.org/fileadmin/src/media/PDFs/EUCAST_files/AFST/Antifungal_breakpoints_v_4.1.pdf.
125. Farina C, Manso E, Andreoni S, et al. Interlaboratory evaluation of VITEK2 system and Sensititre YeastOne(R) for antifungal susceptibility testing of yeasts isolated from blood cultures against four antifungal agents. New Microbiol 2011, 34:195-201.
126. Astvad KM, Perlin DS, Johansen HK, Jensen RH, Arendrup MC Evaluation of caspofungin susceptibility testing by the new Vitek 2 AST-YS06 yeast card using a unique collection of FKS wild-type and hot spot mutant isolates, including the five most common candida species. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013, 57:177-182.
127. Pfaller MA Antifungal drug resistance: mechanisms, epidemiology, and consequences for treatment. Am J Med 2012, 125(suppl 1):S3-13.
128. Larsen RA, Bauer M, Pitisuttithum P, et al. Correlation of susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans to amphotericin B with clinical outcome. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011, 55:5624-5630.
129. Verweij PE, Howard SJ, Melchers WJ, Denning DW Azole-resistance in Aspergillus: proposed nomenclature and breakpoints. Drug Resist Updat 2009, 12:141-147.
130. Pascual A, Calandra T, Bolay S, Buclin T, Bille J, Marchetti O Voriconazole therapeutic drug monitoring in patients with invasive mycoses improves efficacy and safety outcomes. Clin Infect Dis 2008, 46:201-211.
131. Tan K, Brayshaw N, Tomaszewski K, Troke P, Wood N Investigation of the potential relationships between plasma voriconazole concentrations and visual adverse events or liver function test abnormalities. J Clin Pharmacol 2006, 46:235-243.
132. Ashbee HR, Barnes RA, Johnson EM, Richardson MD, Gorton R, Hope WW Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) of antifungal agents: guidelines from the British Society for Medical Mycology. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013, 69:1162-1176.
133. Baricchi R, Zini M, Nibali MG, et al. Using pathology-specific laboratory profiles in clinical pathology to reduce inappropriate test requesting: two completed audit cycles. BMC Health Serv Res 2012, 12:187.
134. Negrini G, Liverani S, De Biasio V, et al. Quality of the documents requesting and reporting CT scans: a retrospective study in four Italian hospitals. Ig Sanita Pubbl 2010, 66:9-32. (in Italian).
135. Key performance indicators in pathology Royal College of Pathologists, (accessed Jan 19, 2015). http://www.rcpath.org/clinical-effectiveness/kpi.
136. Ramos AM, Sales Ade O, de Andrade MC, Bittencourt JF, Ramos CC A simple method for detecting subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis with light-colored fungi. A study of eight cases. American J Surg Pathol 1995, 19:109-114.
137. Lazcano O, Speights VO, Strickler JG, Bilbao JE, Becker J, Diaz J Combined histochemical stains in the differential-diagnosis of Cryptococcus-neoformans. Modern Pathol 1993, 6:80-84.
138. Fons A, Garcia-de-Lomas J, Nogueira JM, Buesa FJ, Gimeno C Histopathology of experimental Aspergillus fumigatus keratitis. Mycopathologia 1988, 101:129-131.
139. Guarner J, Brandt ME Histopathologic diagnosis of fungal infections in the 21st century. Clin Microbiol Rev 2011, 24:247-280.
140. Paterson PJ, Seaton S, McLaughlin J, Kibbler CC Development of molecular methods for the identification of aspergillus and emerging moulds in paraffin wax embedded tissue sections. Mol Pathol 2003, 56:368-370.
141. Rickerts V, Mousset S, Lambrecht E, et al. Comparison of histopathological analysis, culture, and polymerase chain reaction assays to detect invasive mold infections from biopsy specimens. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 44:1078-1083.
142. Rickerts V, Khot PD, Myerson D, Ko DL, Lambrecht E, Fredricks DN Comparison of quantitative real time PCR with sequencing and ribosomal RNA-FISH for the identification of fungi in formalin fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue specimens. BMC Infect Dis 2011, 11:202.
143. Lass-Florl C, Follett SA, Moody A, Denning DW Detection of Aspergillus in lung and other tissue samples using the MycAssay Aspergillus real-time PCR kit. Can J Microbiol 2011, 57:765-768.
144. Hauggaard A, Ellis M, Ekelund L Early chest radiography and CT in the diagnosis, management and outcome of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Acta Radiol 2002, 43:292-298.
145. Leung AN, Gosselin MV, Napper CH, et al. Pulmonary infections after bone marrow transplantation: clinical and radiographic findings. Radiology 1999, 210:699-710.
146. Goodman PC Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Thorac Imaging 1991, 6:16-21.
147. Barloon TJ, Galvin JR, Mori M, Stanford W, Gingrich RD High-resolution ultrafast chest CT in the clinical management of febrile bone marrow transplant patients with normal or nonspecific chest roentgenograms. Chest 1991, 99:928-933.
148. Heussel CP, Kauczor HU, Heussel G, Fischer B, Mildenberger P, Thelen M Early detection of pneumonia in febrile neutropenic patients: use of thin-section CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997, 169:1347-1353.
149. Heussel CP, Kauczor HU, Heussel GE, et al. Pneumonia in febrile neutropenic patients and in bone marrow and blood stem-cell transplant recipients: use of high-resolution computed tomography. J Clin Oncol 1999, 17:796-805.
150. Schueller G, Matzek W, Kalhs P, Schaefer-Prokop C Pulmonary infections in the late period after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation: chest radiography versus computed tomography. Eur J Radiol 2005, 53:489-494.
151. Webb WR Airway diseases. High-resolution of CT of the lung 2009, 492-554. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 4th ed. W.R. Webb, N.L. Muller, D.P. Naidich (Eds.).
152. Escuissato DL, Gasparetto EL, Marchiori E, et al. Pulmonary infections after bone marrow transplantation: high-resolution CT findings in 111 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2005, 185:608-615.
153. Bruno C, Minniti S, Vassanelli A, Pozzi-Mucelli R Comparison of CT features of Aspergillus and bacterial pneumonia in severely neutropenic patients. J Thorac Imaging 2007, 22:160-165.
154. Aribandi M, McCoy VA, Bazan C Imaging features of invasive and noninvasive fungal sinusitis: a review. Radiographics 2007, 27:1283-1296.
155. Gillespie MB, O'Malley BW, Francis HW An approach to fulminant invasive fungal rhinosinusitis in the immunocompromised host. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1998, 124:520-526.
156. Gruden JF, Ouanounou S, Tigges S, Norris SD, Klausner TS Incremental benefit of maximum-intensity-projection images on observer detection of small pulmonary nodules revealed by multidetector CT. J Roentgenol 2002, 179:149-157.
157. Sonnet S, Buitrago-Tellez CH, Tamm M, Christen S, Steinbrich W Direct detection of angioinvasive pulmonary aspergillosis in immunosuppressed patients: preliminary results with high-resolution 16-MDCT angiography. Am J Roentgenol 2005, 184:746-751.
158. Tempkin AD, Sobonya RE, Seeger JF, Oh ES Cerebral aspergillosis: radiologic and pathologic findings. Radiographics 2006, 26:1239-1242.
159. Ashdown BC, Tien RD, Felsberg GJ Aspergillosis of the brain and paranasal sinuses in immunocompromised patients: CT and MR imaging findings. Am J Roentgenol 1994, 162:155-159.
160. Yuh WT, Nguyen HD, Gao F, et al. Brain parenchymal infection in bone marrow transplantation patients: CT and -findings. Am J Roentgenol 1994, 162:425-430.
161. DeLone DR, Goldstein RA, Petermann G, et al. Disseminated aspergillosis involving the brain: distribution and imaging characteristics. Am J Neuroradiol 1999, 20:1597-1604.