Justice in America: The separate realities of blacks and whites

Justice in America: The Separate Realities of Blacks and Whites

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 1-262

  Peffley, Mark ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84925134703     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511760761     Document Type: Book

References (409)

1. Controlled Substances Act.
2. Chicago v. Morales. 1997. In NE 2d: Illinois Supreme Court.
3. Chicago v. Morales. 1999. In US: U.S. Supreme Court.
4. Pratt v. Chicago Housing Authority. 1994. In F. Supp.: Northern District of illinois.
5. “One in 100: Behind Bars in America 2008.” 2008. Washington, D.c.: Pew charitable Trusts.
6. “Public Safety, Public Spending: Forecasting America’s Prison Population, 2007-2011.” 2007. Washington, D.C.: Pew Charitable Trusts.
7. Abramson, Paul R., John Herbert Aldrich, and David W. Rohde. 1991. Change and Continuity in the 1988 Elections. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press.
8. Albonetti, Celesta A. 1997. “Sentencing under the Federal Sentencing Guidelines: Effects of Defendant Characteristics, Guilty Pleas, and Departures on Sentence Outcomes for Drug Offenses, 1991-1992.” Law and Society Review 31 (4): 789-822.
9. Allen, Richard L., Michael C. Dawson, and Ronald E. Brown. 1989. “A Schema-based Approach to Modeling an African-American Racial Belief System.” American Political Science Review 83 (2): 421-41.
10. Altheide, David L. 2002. Fear: News and the Construction of Crisis. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
11. Applebaum, Lauren D. 2001. “The Influence of Perceived Deservingness on Policy Decisions Regarding Aid to the Poor.” Political Psychology 22: 419-42.
12. Applegate, Brandon K., Francis T. Cullen, Michael G. Turner, and Jody L. Sundt. 1996. “Assessing Public Support for Three-Strikes and You’re- Out Laws: Global versus Specific Attitudes.” Crime and Delinquency 42: 517-34.
13. Asher, Herbert. 1980a. “Presidential Elections,” in Academic American Encyclopedia. Princeton, NJ: Arete Publishing company.
14. Asher, Herbert. 1980b. Presidential Elections and American Politics: Candidates, and Campaigns since 1952. Rev. ed. Homewood, IL: The Dorsey Press.
15. Austin, James. 1995. “The Overrepresentation of Minority Youths in the california Juvenile Justice System,” in Minorities in Juvenile Justice, ed. K. K. Leonard, c. E. Pope, and W. Feyerherm. Thousand Oaks, cA: Sage Publications: 153-78.
16. Azzi, Assaad E. 1992. “Procedural Justice and the Allocation of Power in Intergroup Relations: Studies in the United States and South Africa.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18: 736-47.
17. Bachman, Ronet. 1996. “Victim’s Perceptions of Initial Police Responses to Robbery and Aggravated Assault: Does Race Matter?” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 12: 363-90.
18. Baldus, David c., charles Pulaski, and George Woodworth. 1983. “comparative Review of Death Sentences: An Empirical Study of the Georgia Experience.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 74: 661-753.
19. Barrett-Howard, Edith, and Tom R. Tyler. 1986. “Procedural Justice as a criterion in Allocation Decisions.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50: 296-304.
20. Bartels, Larry M. 2008. Unequal Democracy: The Political Economy of the New Gilded Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
21. Baumer, Eric P., Richard Rosenfeld, and Steven F. Messner. 2003. “Explaining Spatial Variation in Support for capital Punishment: A Multi-Level Analysis.” American Journal of Sociology 108: 844-75.
22. Baumgartner, Frank R., Suzanna De Boef, and Amber E. Boydstun. 2004. An Evolutionary Factor Analysis Approach to the Study of Issue-Definition. Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, April 15-18, chicago.
23. Beckett, Katherine. 1997. Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics. New York: Oxford University Press.
24. Beckett, Katherine, and Theodore Sasson. 2004. “crime, Politics and the Public: The Sources of Mass Incarceration in the U.S.A.” The Japanese Journal of Sociological Criminology 29: 27-49.
25. Beckett, Katherine, Kris Nyrop, and Lori Pfingst. 2006. “Race, Drugs and Policing: Understanding Disparities in Drug Delivery Arrests.” Criminology 44 (1): 105-38.
26. Behrens, Angela, christopher Uggen, and Jeff Manza. 2003. “Ballot Manipulation and the ‘Menace of Negro Domination’: Racial Threat and Felon Disenfranchisement Laws in the United States.” American Journal of Sociology 109: 559-605.
27. Berinsky, Adam. 2009. In Time of War: Understanding American Public Opinion from World War II to Iraq. chicago: University of chicago Press.
28. Black, Donald, ed. 1980. The Manners and Customs of the Police. New York: Academic Press.
29. Black, Donald J., and Albert J. Reiss Jr. 1970. “Police control of Juveniles.” American Sociological Review 35 (1): 63-77.
30. Bledsoe, Timothy, Susan Welch, Lee Sigelman, and Michael Combs. 1995. “Residential Context and Racial Solidarity among African Americans.” American Journal of Political Science 39: 434-58.
31. Blumstein, Alfred. 1982. “On the Racial Disproportionality of United States’ Prison Populations.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 73: 1259-81.
32. Bobo, Lawrence. 1997. “Race, Public Opinion and the Social Sphere.” Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1): 1-15.
33. Bobo, Lawrence D., and Devon Johnson. 2004. “A Taste for Punishment: Black and White Americans’ Views on the Death Penalty and the War on Drugs.” Du Bois Review 1: 151-80.
34. Bobo, Lawrence D., and James R. Kluegel. 1993. “Opposition to Racetargeting: Self-interest, Stratification Ideology, or Racial Attitudes.” American Sociological Review 58: 443-64.
35. Bobo, Lawrence D., James R. Kluegel, and Ryan A. Smith. 1997. “Laissez Faire Racism: The Crystallization of a ‘Kinder, Gentler’ Anti-Black Ideology,” in Racial Attitudes in the 1990s: Continuity and Change, ed. S. A. Tuch and J. K. Martin. Greenwood, CT: Praeger: 15-44.
36. Bobo, Lawrence, Camille L. Zubrinsky, James H. Johnson Jr., and Melvin L. Oliver. 1994. “Public Opinion before and after a Spring of Discontent,” in The Los Angeles Riots: Lessons for the Urban Future, ed. M. Baldassare. Boulder, CO: Westview Press: 103-34.
37. Bodenhausen, Galen V. 1988. “Stereotypic Biases in Social Decision Making and Memory: Testing Process Models of Stereotype Use.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55: 726-37.
38. Bohm, Robert M. 2003. “American Death Penalty Opinion: Past, Present and Future,” in America’s Experiment with Capital Punishment, ed. J. Acker, R. Bohm, and C. Lanier. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
39. Bonczar, Thomas P. 2003. “Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report: Prevalence of Imprisonment in the US Population, 1974-2001.” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice.
40. Borg, Sami. 1995. “Electoral Participation,” in The Impact of Values, ed. J. W. V. Deth and E. Scarbrough. New York: Oxford University Press.
41. Bottoms, Anthony. 1995. “The Philosophy and Politics of Punishment and Sentencing,” in The Politics of Sentencing Reform, ed. C. M. Clarkson and R. M. Clarkson. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
42. Brace, Paul, and Brent D. Boyea. 2008. “State Public Opinion, the Death Penalty, and the Practice of Electing Judges.” American Journal of Political Science 52: 360-72.
43. Brace, Paul R., and Melinda Gann Hall. 1997. “The Interplay of Preferences, Case Facts, context, and Rules in the Politics of Judicial choice.” The Journal of Politics 59 (4): 1206-31.
44. Brewer, Marilynn B., and Rupert J. Brown. 1998. “Intergroup Relations,” in The Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, and L. Gardner. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
45. Brewer, Paul R. 2001. “Value Words and Lizard Brains: Do Citizens Deliberate about Appeals to Their Core Values?” Political Psychology 22: 45-64.
46. Bridges, George S. 1997. “A Study on Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Superior Court Bail and Pre-Trial Detention Practices in Washington.” Olympia: Washington State Minority and Justice Commission.
47. Bridges, George S., and Sara Steen. 1998. “Racial Disparities in Official Assessments of Juvenile Offenders: Attributional Stereotypes as Mediating Mechanisms.” American Sociological Review 63: 554-70.
48. Bridges, George S., Darlene J. Conley, Rodney L. Engen, and Townsand Price-Spratlen. 1995. “Racial Disparities in the Confinement of Juveniles: Effects of Crime and Community Social Structure on Punishment,” in Minorities in Juvenile Justice, ed. K. K. Leonard, E. Pope, and W. Feyerherm. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
49. Brokner, J., and B. M. Wiesenfeld. 1996. “An Integrative Framework for Explaining Reactions to Decisions: Interactive Effects of Outcomes and Procedures.” Psychological Bulletin 102: 189-208.
50. Bureau of Justice Statistics. 1999a. “Capital Punishment 1997.” Washington, C.: U.S. Department of Justice.
51. Bureau of Justice Statistics. 1999b. “U.S. Department of Justice Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics.” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice.
52. Bureau of Justice Statistics. 2000. “National Crime Victimization Survey,” in National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) Series. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice.
53. Bureau of Justice Statistics. September 2004. “Criminal Victimization, 2003.” ed. U.S Department of Justice (NCJ 205455). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice.
54. Burstein, Paul. 2003. “The Impact of Public Opinion on Public Policy: A Review and an Agenda.” Political Research Quarterly 56: 29-40.
55. Butler, Paul. 1995. “Racially Based Jury Nullification: Black Power in the Criminal Justice System.” Yale Law Journal 105: 677-725.
56. Butler, Paul. 1997. “The Role of Race Based Jury Nullification in American Criminal Justice.” John Marshall Law Review 30: 911-22.
57. Bynum, Timothy S., Gary W. Cordner, and Jack R. Greene. 1982. “Victim and Offense Characteristics: Impact on Police Investigative Decision Making.” Criminology 20: 301-18.
58. Callanan, Valerie J. 2005. Feeding the Fear of Crime: Crime-Related Media and Support for Three Strikes. New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing.
59. Campbell, Alec, Richard A. Berk, and James J. Fyfe. 1998. “Deployment of Violence: The Los Angeles Police Department’s Use of Dogs.” Evaluation Review 22: 535-61.
60. Canes-Wrone, Brandice, and Kenneth W. Shotts. 2004. “The Conditional Nature of Presidential Responsiveness to Public Opinion.” American Journal of Political Science 48: 690-706.
61. Caplow, Theodore, and Jonathan Simon. 1980. “Understanding Prison Policy and Population Trends.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 64: 198-207.
62. Caplow, Theodore, and Jonathan Simon. 1999. “Understanding Prison Policy and Population Trends” in “Prisons,” ed. Michael Tonry and Joan Petersilia, special issue, Crime and Justice 26: 63-120.
63. Cardwell, Diane, and Sewell Chan. November 28, 2006. “Mayor Calls 50 Shots by the Police ‘Unacceptable.’” New York Times.
64. Carmines, Edward, and James Stimson. 1980. “The Two Faces of Issue Voting.” American Political Science Review 74: 78-91.
65. Chiricos, Ted G., and Charles Crawford. 1995. “Race and Imprisonment: A Contextual Assessment of the Evidence,” in Ethnicity, Race, and Crime: Perspectives across Time and Place, ed. D. F. Hawkins. Albany: State University of New York Press.
66. Chiricos, Ted G., and Sarah Eschholz. 2002. “The Racial and Ethnic Typification of Crime and the Criminal Typification of Race and Ethnicity in Local Television News.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 39: 400-20.
67. Chiricos, Theodore G., and William D. Bales. 1991. “Unemployment and Punishment: An Empirical Assessment.” Criminology 29: 701-24.
68. Chong, Dennis, and James N. Druckman. 2006. “Democratic Competition and Public Opinion.” Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 31-September 3, Philadelphia.
69. Christopher, Warren, ed. 1991. “Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department” (The Christopher Commission). Upland, PA: Diane Publishing Co.
70. Citizens for Independent Courts Task Force on the Role of the Legislature in Setting the Power and Jurisdiction of the Courts. 2000. “Uncertain Justice: Politics and America’s Courts: The Reports of the Task Forces of Citizens for Independent Courts,” in Uncertain Justice: Politics and America’s Courts. New York: Century Foundation Press.
71. Clark, Patrick M. 1985. “Perceptions of Criminal Justice Surveys, Executive Summary.” Lansing: Michigan Prison and Jail Overcrowding Project.
72. Cochran, John K., and Mitchell B. Chamlin. 2005. “Can Information Change Public Opinion?: Another Test of the Marshall Hypotheses.” Journal of Criminal Justice 33: 573-84.
73. Cochran, John K., Denise Paquette Boots, and Kathleen M. Heide. 2003. “Attribution Styles and Attitudes toward Capital Punishment for Juveniles, the Mentally Incompetent, and the Mentally Retarded.” Justice Quarterly 20: 65-93.
74. cohn, Steven F., Steven E. Barkan, and William E. Haltman. 1991. “Punitive Attitudes toward criminals: Racial consensus or Racial conflict?” Social Problems 38: 287-96.
75. conley, D. 1994. “Adding color to a Black and White Picture: Using Qualitative Data to Explain Racial Disproportionality in the Juvenile Justice System.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 31: 135-48.
76. conover, Pamela. 1988. “The Role of Social Groups in Political Thinking.” British Journal of Political Science 18: 51-76.
77. conover, Pamela Johnston, and Stanley Feldman. 1981. “The Origins and Meaning of Liberal/conservative Self-Identifications.” American Journal of Political Science 25 (3): 617-45.
78. converse, Philip E. 1964. “The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics,” in Ideology and Discontent, ed. D. Apter. New York: Free Press: 206-61.
79. cose, Ellis. 2009. “closing the Gap: Obama could Fix cocaine Sentencing.” Newsweek, July 20, 25.
80. crawford, charles, Ted chiricos, and Gary Kleck. 1998. “Race, Racial Threat, and Sentencing of Habitual Offenders.” Criminology 36 (3): 481-511.
81. crew, Keith. 1991. “Race Differences in Felony charging and Sentencing: Toward an Integration of Decision-making and Negotiation Models.” Journal of Crime and Justice 14: 99-122.
82. crutchfield, Robert D., George S. Bridges, and Susan R. Pitchford. 1994. “Analytical and Aggregation Biases in Analyses of Imprisonment: Reconciling Discrepancies in Studies of Racial Disparity.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 31: 166-82.
83. cullen, Francis T., Bonnie S. Fisher, and Brandon K. Applegate. 2000. “Public Opinion about Punishment and corrections.” Crime and Justice 27: 1-79.
84. cullen, Francis T., John Paul Wright, Shayna Brown, Melissa M. Moon, Michael B. Blankenship, and Brandon K. Applegate. 1998. “Public Support for Early Intervention Programs: Implications for Progressive Policy Agenda.” Crime and Delinquency 44: 187-204.
85. cureton, Steven R. 200I. “Determinants of Black-to-White Arrest Differentials: A Review of the Literature,” in The System in Black and White: Exploring the Connections between Race, Crime, and Justice, ed. M. W. Markowitz and D. D. Jones-Brown. Westport, cT: Praeger: 65-71.
86. curran, Barbara A. 1977. “The Legal Needs of the Public: The Final Report of a National Survey.” chicago: American Bar Foundation.
87. Dannefer, Dale, and Russell K. Schutt. 1982. “Race and Juvenile Justice Processing in court and Police Agencies.” American Journal of Sociology 87: 1113-32.
88. Davis, Darren W. 1997. “The Direction of Race of Interviewer Effects among African-Americans: Donning the Black Mask.” American Journal of Political Science 41: 309-22.
89. Davis, Darren W., and Brian D. Silver. 2003. “Stereotype Threat and Race of Interviewer Effects in a Survey on Political Knowledge.” American Journal of Political Science 47: 33-45.
90. Dawson, Michael C. 1994. Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African- American Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
91. Delgado, Richard. 1994. “Rodrigo’s Eighth Chronicle: Black Crime, White Fears: On the Social Construction of Threat.” Virginia Law Review 80 (2): 503-48.
92. De Santis, Andrea, and Wesley A. Kayson. 1997. “Defendants’ Characteristics of Attractiveness, Race, and Sex and Sentencing Decisions.” Psychological Reports 81: 679-83.
93. Devine, Patricia G., and Sara M. Baker. 1991. “Measurement of Racial Stereotype Subtyping.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17: 44-50.
94. Dilworth, Donald C. 1996. “Jury Nullification: When Jurors Leave the Law Behind.” Trial 32: 12-14.
95. Dixon, Jo. 1995. “The Organizational Context of Criminal Sentencing.” American Journal of Sociology 100: 1157-98.
96. Dixon, Travis L., and Daniel Linz. 2000. “Race and the Misrepresentation of Victimization on Local Television News.” Communication Research 27: 547-73.
97. Doble, John. 2002. “Attitudes to Punishment in the U.S.: Punitive and Liberal Opinions,” in Changing Attitudes to Punishment: Public Opinion, Crime and Justice, ed. J. V. Roberts and M. Hough. Portland, OR: Willan Publishing.
98. Dovidio, John F., Jennifer K. Smith, Amy Gershenfeld Donnella, and Samuel L. Gaertner. 1997. “Racial Attitudes and the Death Penalty.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 27: 1468-87.
99. Druckman, James N. 2001a. “On the Limits of Framing Effects: Who Can Frame?” The Journal of Politics 63: 1041-66.
100. Druckman, James N. 2001b. “The Implications of Framing Effects for Citizen Competence.” Political Behavior 23: 225-56.
101. Duke, Lynne. February 26, 2000. “Jury Acquits 4 N.Y. Officers; Panel Rules Police Acted Reasonable in Slaying of Amadou Diallo.” Washington Post, A01.
102. Dyck, Joshua J., and Laura S. Hussey. 2008. “The End of Welfare as We Know It? Durable Attitudes in a Changing Information Environment.” Public Opinion Quarterly 72 (4): 589-618.
103. Eagly, Alice H., and Shelley Chaiken. 1993. The Psychology of Attitudes. New York: Harcourt Brace.
104. Eberhardt, Jennifer L., Phillip Atiba Goff, Valerie J. Purdie, and Paul G. Davies. 2004. “Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87: 876-93.
105. Edsall, Thomas B. May 11-17, 1992. “Two Steps Forward, One Step Backlash.” Washington Post National Weekly Edition.
106. Edwards, Kari, and Edward E. Smith. 1996. “A Disconfirmation Bias in the Evaluation of Arguments.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71: 5-24.
107. Ellsworth, Phoebe C., and Samuel R. Gross. 1994. “Hardening of the Attitudes: Americans’ Views on the Death Penalty.” Journal of Social Issues 50: 19-52.
108. Entman, Robert M. 1992. “Blacks in the News: Television, Modern Racism, and Cultural Change.” Journalism Quarterly 69: 341-61.
109. Entman, Robert M. 1993. “Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm.” Journal of Communication 43: 51-8.
110. Entman, Robert M., and Andrew Rojecki. 2001. The Black Image in the White Mind: Media and Race in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
111. Fears, Darryl. April 15, 2009. “A Racial Shift in Drug-Crime Prisoners.” Washington Post.
112. Feder, Lynette. 1994. “Psychiatric Hospitalization History and Parole Decisions.” Law and Human Behavior 18: 395-410.
113. Federal Bureau of Investigation. 1995. “Crime in the United States - 1994.” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
114. Federal Bureau of Investigation. 2000. “Crime in the United States,” in Uniform Crime Reports. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
115. Fehr, Ernst, and Simon Gachter. 2002. “Altruistic Punishment in Humans.” Nature 415: 137-40.
116. Feldman, Stanley. 1982. “Economic Self-interest and Political Behavior.” American Journal of Political Science 26: 446-66.
117. Feldman, Stanley. 1988. “Structure and Consistency in Public Opinion: The Role of Core Beliefs and Values.” American Journal of Political Science 31: 416-40.
118. Feldman, Stanley. 2003. “Values, Ideology, and the Structure of Political Attitudes,” in Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology, ed. D. O. Sears, L. Huddy, and R. Jervis. New York: Oxford University Press.
119. Feldman, Stanley, and Leonie Huddy. 2005. “Racial Resentment and White Opposition to Race-Conscious Programs: Principles or Prejudice.” American Journal of Political Science 49 (1): 168-83.
120. Feldman, Stanley, and John Zaller. 1992. “The Political Culture of Ambivalence: Ideological Responses to the Welfare State.” American Journal of Political Science 36: 268-307.
121. Feldman-Barrett, Lisa, and Janet K. Swim. 1998. “Appraisals of Prejudice and Discrimination,” in Prejudice: The Target’s Perspective, ed. J. K. Swim and C. Stangor. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
122. Fishman, Mark. 1978. “Crime Waves as Ideology.” Social Problems 25: 5 31-43.
123. Florida Department of Corrections. 1997. “Florida Department Surveys Residents’ Views of Its Prisons.” Corrections Journal 7 (August): 5-6.
124. Fox, John. 1991. Regression Diagnostics. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
125. Frank, Robert H. 1990a. Luxury Fever. new York: Free Press.
126. Frank, Robert H. 1990b. “Rethinking Rational choice,” in Beyond the Marketplace: Rethinking Economy and Society, ed. R. Friedland and A. F. Robertson. new York: de Gruyter.
127. Frazier, charles E., and Donna M. Bishop. 1995. “Reflections on Race Effects in Juvenile Justice,” in Minorities in Juvenile Justice, ed. K. K. Leonard, c. E. Pope, and W. Feyerherm. Thousand Oaks, cA: Sage Publications.
128. Gabbidon, Shaun L., and Helen Taylor Greene. 2005. Race and Crime. Thousand Oaks, cA: Sage Publications.
129. Gaines, Brian J., James H. Kuklinski, and Paul J. Quirk. 2007. “The logic of the Survey Experiment Reexamined.” Political Analysis 15: 1-20.
130. Gallup, George Jr., and Alec Gallup. December 1999. “The Gallup Poll Monthly (Number 411).” Princeton, NJ: The Gallup Poll.
131. Gallup Poll. 2005. “Death Penalty.” Princeton, NJ: The Gallup Organization.
132. Garland, David. 2001. The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
133. Gaubatz, Kathlyn Taylor. 1995. Crime in the Public Mind. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
134. Gay, claudine. 2004. “Putting Race in context: Identifying the Environmental Determinants of Black Racial Attitudes.” American Political Science Review 98: 547-62.
135. Geller, William A. 1982. “Deadly Force: What We Know.” Journal of Police Science and Administration 10: 151-77.
136. Geller, William A., and Kevin J. Karales. 1981. Split-Second Decisions: Shootings of and by Chicago Police. chicago: chicago Law Enforcement Study Group.
137. Georges-Abeyle, Daniel. 1984. The Criminal Justice System and Blacks. New York: clark Broardman.
138. Gilens, Martin. 1999. Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Anti-Poverty Policy. chicago: University of chicago Press.
139. Gilens, Martin. 2001. “Political Ignorance and collective Policy Preferences.” American Political Science Review 95 (2): 379-96.
140. Gilliam, Franklin D., and Shanto Iyengar. 2000. “Prime Suspects: The Influence of Local Television News on the Viewing Public.” American Journal of Political Science 44: 560-73.
141. Gilliam, Franklin, Nicholas A. Valentino, and Matthew Beckmann. 2002. “Where You Live and What You Watch: Neighborhood Racial context as a Moderator of News Exposure Effects.” Political Research Quarterly 55: 755-80.
142. Graham, Sandra, and Brian S. Lowery. 2004. “Priming Unconscious Racial Stereotypes about Adolescent Offenders.” Law and Human Behavior 28: 483-504.
143. Grasmick, Harold G., John Cochran Jr., Robert J. Bursik, and M’Lou Kimpel. 1993. “Religion, Punitive Justice, and Support for the Death Penalty.” Justice Quarterly 10: 289-314.
144. Grasmick, Harold G., Charles R. Tittle Jr., Robert J. Bursik, and Bruce J. Arneklev. 1993. “Testing the Core Empirical Implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 30: 2-29.
145. Greenberg, Jerald. 1986. “Reactions to Procedural Justice in Payment Distributions: Do the Means Justify the Ends?” Journal of Applied Psychology 72: 55-61.
146. Gregory, James F. 1995. “The Crime of Punishment: Racial and Gender Disparities in the Use of Corporal Punishment in U.S. Public Schools.” Journal of Negro Education 64: 454-62.
147. Gross, Samuel R., and Robert Mauro. 1989. Death and Discrimination: Racial Disparities and Capital Sentencing. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
148. Hagan, John. 1974. “Extra-legal Attributes and Criminal Sentencing: An Assessment of a Sociological Viewpoint.” Law and Society Review 8: 357-84.
149. Hagan, John, and Celesta Albonetti. 1982. “Race, Class, and the Perception of Criminal Injustice in America.” American Journal of Sociology 88: 329-55.
150. Haider-Markel, Donald P., and Mark R. Joslyn. 2001. “Gun Policy, Opinion, Tragedy, and Blame Attribution: The Conditional Influence of Issue Frames.” Journal of Politics 63: 520-43.
151. Haines, Herb. 1992. “Flawed Executions, the Anti-Death Penalty Movement, and the Politics of Capital Punishment.” Social Problems 39 (2): 125-38.
152. Hall, Melinda Gann. 1992. “Electoral Politics and Strategic Voting in State Supreme Courts.” Journal of Politics 54 (2): 427-46.
153. Hall, Melinda Gann. 1995. “Justices as Representatives: Elections and Judicial Politics in the American States.” American Politics Quarterly 23: 485-503.
154. Hamilton, David L., and Jeffrey W. Sherman. 1994. “Stereotypes,” in Handbook of Social Cognition, ed. J. Robert S. Wyer and T. K. Srul. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum: 1-68.
155. Harding, David J. 2003. “Counterfactual Models of Neighborhood Effects: The Effect of Neighorhood Poverty on Dropping Out and Teenage Pregnancy.” American Journal of Sociology 109 (3): 676-719.
156. Harris, David A. 1999. “Driving While Black: Racial Profiling on Our Nation’s Highways.” New York: American Civil Liberties Union.
157. Harris, David A. 2002. Profiles in Injustice. New York: New Press.
158. Hawkins, DarnellF. 1986. “Black and White Homicide Differentials: Alternatives to an Inadequate Theory,” in Homicide among Black Americans, ed. D. F. Hawkins. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
159. Haynes, Graeme A., and James M. Olson. 2006. “Coping with Threats to Just-World Beliefs: Derogate, Blame, or Help?” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 36: 664-82.
160. Helweg-Larsen, Marie. 1999. “The Lack of Optimistic Bias in Response to the 1994 Northridge Earthquake: The Role of Personal Experience.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 21: 119-29.
161. Hepburn, John R. 1978. “Race and the Decision to Arrest: An Analysis of Warrants Issued.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency *5: 54-73.
162. Hewstone, Malcolm D., Harmon M. Hosch, Howard C. Daudistel, Dolores A. Perez, and Joseph B. Graves. 1996. “Ethnicity, Legal Resources, and Felony Dispositions in Two Southwestern Jurisdictions.” Justice Quarterly 13: 11-30.
163. Hibbing, John R., and John R. Alford. 2004. “Accepting Authoritative Decisions: Humans as Wary Cooperators.” American Journal of Political Science 48: 62-76.
164. Hibbing, John R., and Elizabeth Theiss-Morse. 1995. Congress as Public Enemy: Public Attitudes toward Political Institutions. New York: Cambridge University Press.
165. Hibbing, John R., and Elizabeth Theiss-Morse. 2002. Stealth Democracy: Americans’ Beliefs about How Government Should Work. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
166. Hindelang, Michael J. 1978. “Race and Involvement in Common Law Personal Crimes.” American Sociological Review 43: 93-109.
167. Hochschild, Jennifer L. 1981. What’s Fair? American Beliefs about Distributive Justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
168. Hochschild, Jennifer L. 1995. Facing Up to the American Dream: Race, Class, and the Soul of the Nation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
169. Hough, Mike, and Alison Park. 2002. “How Malleable Are Attitudes to Crime and Punishment? Findings from a British Deliberative Poll,” in Changing Attitudes to Punishment: Public Opinion, Crime and Justice, ed. J. V. Roberts and M. Hough. Portland, OR: Willan Publishing: 163-83.
170. Huckfeldt, Robert, Paul E. Johnson, and John Sprague. 2005. Political Disagreement: The Survival of Diverse Opinions within Communications Networks. New York: Cambridge University Press.
171. Huddy, Leonie. 2004. “Contrasting Theoretical Approaches to Intergroup Relations.” Political Psychology 25 (6): 947-67.
172. Huddy, Leonie, and Stanley Feldman. 2009. “On Assessing the Political Effects of Racial Prejudice.” Annual Review of Political Science 12: 423-47.
173. Huddy, Leonie, and Nayda Terkildsen. 1993. “Gender Stereotypes and the Perception of Male and Female Candidates.” American Journal of Political Science 37: 119-47.
174. Huebner, Beth M., and Timothy S. Bynum. 2008. “The Role of Race and the Ethnicity of Parole Decisions.” Criminology 46 (4): 907-38.
175. Human Rights Watch. 1998. Shielded from Justice: Police Brutality and Accountability in the United States. New York: Human Rights Watch.
176. Hurwitz, Jon, and Mark Peffley. 1997. “Public Perceptions of Race and crime: The Role of Racial Stereotypes.” American Journal of Political Science 41: 375-401.
177. Hurwitz, Jon, and Mark Peffley. 2005a. “Explaining the Great Racial Divide: Perceptions of Fairness in the U.S. Criminal Justice System.” The Journal of Politics 67: 762-83.
178. Hurwitz, Jon, and Mark Peffley. 2005b. “Playing the Race Card in the Post-Willie Horton Era: The Impact of Racialized Code Words on Support for Punitive Crime Policy.” Public Opinion Quarterly 69: 99-112.
179. Hurwitz, Jon, and Shannon Smithey. 1998. “Gender Differences on Crime and Punishment.” Political Research Quarterly 51: 89-115.
180. Hutchings, Vincent, Walton Hanes Jr., and Andrea Benjamin. Forthcoming. “The Impact of Explicit Racial Cues on Gender Differences in Support for Confederate Symbols and Partisanship.” Journal of Politics.
181. Hutchings, Vincent, Nicholas Valentino, Tasha Philpot, and Ismail K. White. 2004. “The Compassion Strategy: Race and Gender Gap in American Politics.” Public Opinion Quarterly 68 (4): 512-41.
182. Inman, Mary L., and Robert S. Baron. 1996. “Influence of Prototypes on Perceptions of Prejudice.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70: 727-39.
183. Iyengar, Shanto. 1989. “How Citizens Think about National Issues: A Matter of Responsibility.” American Journal of Political Science 33: 878-900.
184. Jaccard, James, Robert Turrisi, and Choi K. Wan. 1990. Interaction Effects in Multiple Regression. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
185. Jackman, Mary R., and Michael J. Muha. 1984. “Education and Intergroup Attitudes: Moral Enlightenment, Superficial Democratic Commitment, or Ideological Refinement?” American Sociological Review 49: 751-69.
186. Jackson, Pamela Irving. 1989. Minority Group Threat, Crime, and Policing: Social Context and Social Control. New York: Praeger.
187. Jacobs, David, and Robert M. O’Brien. 1998. “The Determinants of Deadly Force: A Structural Analysis of Police Violence.” American Journal of Sociology 103: 837-62.
188. Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. 1992. Dirty Politics: Deception, Distraction, and Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press.
189. John, Richard St. 1997. “License to Nullify: The Democratic and Constitutional Deficiencies of Authorized Jury Lawmaking.” Yale Law Journal 106: 2563-97.
190. Johns, Christina Jacqueline. 1992. Power, Ideology, and the War on Drugs: Nothing Succeeds Like Failure. New York: Praeger.
191. Johnson, Blair, and Alice Eagly. 1989. “Effects of Involvement on Persuasion: A Meta-Analysis.” Psychological Bulletin 106: 290-314.
192. Johnson, Blair T., Aaron Smith-McLallen, Ley A. Killeya, and Kenneth D. Levin. 2004. “Truth or Consequences: Overcoming Resistance to Persuasion with Positive Thinking,” in Resistance and Persuasion, ed. E. S. Knowles and J. Linn. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum: 215-34.
193. Johnson, Devon. 2001. “Punitive Attitudes on crime: economic Insecurity, Racial Prejudice, or Both?” Sociological Focus 34 (1): 33-54.
194. Johnson, W. Wesley, and Mark Jones. 1998. “Probation, Race and the War on Drugs: An Empirical Analysis of Drug and Non-drug Felony Probation Outcomes.” Journal of Drug Issues 28: 985-1004.
195. Jost, John T., Mahzarin R. Banaji, and Brian A. Nosek. 2004. “A Decade of System Justification Theory: Accumulated Evidence of Conscious and Unconscious Bolstering of the Status Quo.” Political Psychology 25 (6): 823-989.
196. Jost, John T., and Brenda, Major, eds. 2001. The Psychology of Legitimacy: Emerging Perspectives on Ideology, Justice, and Intergroup Relations. cambridge: cambridge University Press.
197. Kahle, Lynn R., ed. 1983. Social Values and Social Change: Adaptation to Life in America. New York: Praeger.
198. Keil, Thomas J., and Gennaro F. Vito. 1995. “Race and the Death Penalty in Kentucky Murder Trials: 1976-1991.” American Journal of Criminal Justice 20: 17-36.
199. Kempf-Leonard, Kimberly, and Henry Sontheimer. 1995. “The Role of Race in Juvenile Justice in Pennsylvania,” in Minorities in Juvenile Justice, ed. K. K. Leonard, C. E. Pope, and W. Feyerherm. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications: 98-127.
200. Kennedy, Randall. 1997. Race, Crime, and the Law. New York: Pantheon Books.
201. Key, V. O. 1949. Southern Politics in State and Nation. New York: Alfred P. Knopf.
202. Kiewiet, D. Roderick. 1983. Macroeconomics and Micropolitics: The Electoral Effects of Economic Issues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
203. Kinder, Donald. 1993. “On Behalf of an Experimental Political Science,” in Experimental Foundations of Political Science, ed. D. Kinder and T. R. Palfrey. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
204. Kinder, Donald R., and D. Roderik Kiewiet. 1981. “Sociotropic Politics: The American Case.” British Journal of Political Science 11: 129-61.
205. Kinder, Donald R., and Tali Mendelberg. 1995. “Cracks in American Apartheid: The Political Impact of Prejudice among Desegregated Whites.” The Journal of Politics 75: 402-24.
206. Kinder, Donald R., and Lynn M. Sanders. 1996. Divided by Color: Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
207. Kinder, Donald R., and David O. Sears. 1981. “Prejudice and Politics: Symbolic Racism versus Racial Threats to the Good Life.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40 (3): 414-31.
208. Kinder, Donald R., and Nicholas Winter. 2001. “Exploring the Racial Divide: Blacks, Whites, and Opinion on Nationality Policy.” American Journal of Political Science 45: 439-56.
209. King, Ryan S. 2009. Testimony before the Standing Committee on Justice and Human Rights, House of commons, December 6, 2006, Ottawa, Ontario (cited August 1, 2009). Available at http://www.sentencingproject.org/doc/publications/sl_canada_testimony.pdf (accessed January 3, 2010).
210. Kleck, Gary. 1981. “Racial Discrimination in criminal Sentencing: A critical Evaluation of the Evidence with Additional Evidence on the Death Penalty.” American Sociological Review 46: 783-805.
211. Klein, Stephen, Joan Petersilia, and Susan Turner. 1990. “Race and Imprisonment Decisions in California.” Science 247: 812-16.
212. Kluegel, James R., and Elliot R. Smith. 1986. Beliefs about Inequality: Americans’ Views of What Is and What Ought to Be. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
213. Koch, Jeffrey W. 2000. “Do Citizens Apply Gender Stereotypes to Infer Candidates’ Ideological Orientations?” Journal of Politics 62: 414-29.
214. Kochar, Rakesh, Robert Suro, and Sonya Tafoya. 2005. “The New Latino South: The Context and Consequences of Rapid Population Growth.” Pew Hispanic Center: A Pew Research Center Project. Available at http://www.pewhispanic.org/files/reports/50.pdf (accessed January 20, 2010).
215. Krosnick, Jon A. 1999. “Survey Research.” Annual Review of Psychology 50: 537-67.
216. Kuklinski, James H., and Michael D. Cobb. 1998. “When White Southerners Converse About Race,” in Perception and Prejudice: Race and Politics in the United States, ed. J. Hurwitz and M. Peffley. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press: 35-57.
217. Kuklinski, James H., Michael D. Cobb, and Martin Gilens. 1997. “Racial Attitudes and the ‘New South.’” Journal of Politics 55: 323-49.
218. Kuklinski, James H., Paul J. Quirk, Jennifer Jerit, David Schwieder, and Robert Rich. 2000. “Misinformation and the Currency of Citizenship.” Journal of Politics 62: 791-816.
219. Kunda, Ziva. 1990. “The Case for Motivated Reasoning.” Psychological Bulletin 108 (3): 480-98.
220. Lane, Robert. 1962. Political Ideology: Why the Common American Man Believes What He Does. New York: The Free Press.
221. Langan, Patrick A. 1994. “No Racism in the Justice System.” The Public Interest 117: 48-51.
222. Lauritsen, Janet L., and Robert J. Sampson. 1998. “Minorities, Crime, and Criminal Justice,” in The Handbook of Crime and Punishment, ed. M. Tonry. New York: Oxford University Press: 54-84.
223. Leiber, Michael, and Jayne Stairs. 1999. “Race, Contexts, and the Use of Intake Diversion.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 36: 56-86.
224. Leonard, Kimberly K., and Henry Sontheimer. 1995. “The Role of Race in Juvenile Justice in Pennsylvania,” in Minorities in Juvenile Justice, ed. K. K. Leonard, C. E. Pope, and W. H. Feyerherm. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications: 98-127.
225. Lerner, Melvin J. 1980. The Belief in a Just World: A Fundamental Delusion. New York: Plenum Press.
226. Lerner, Melvin J., and Sally c., lerner. 1981. The Justice Motive in Social Behavior: Adapting to Times of Scarcity and Change. new York: Plenum Press.
227. Leventhal, Gerald S. 1980. “What Should Be Done with Equity Theory?” in Social Exchange Advances in Theory and Research, ed. K. J. Gergen, M. S. Greenberg, and R. H. Willis. new York: Plenum.
228. levin, Jack, and Alexander R. Thomas. 1997. “experimentally Manipulating Race: Perceptions of Police Brutality in an Arrest: A Research Note.” Justice Quarterly 14: 577-86.
229. Lewis, Peter W. 1979. “Killing the Killers: A Post-Furman Profile of Florida’s Condemned: A Personal Account.” Crime and Delinquency 25: 200-18.
230. Lewis-Beck, Michael, and Mary Stegmaier. 2000. “Economic Determinants of Electoral Outcomes.” Annual Review of Political Science 3: 183-219.
231. Leyden, Liz. March 7, 2000. “N.Y. Police Convicted of Coverup in Beating; 3 Officers Conspired to Obstruct Probe.” Washington Post, A03.
232. Liberman, Peter. 2006. “An Eye for an Eye: Public Support for War against Evildoers.” International Organization 60: 687-722.
233. Lichtenstein, K. R. 1982. “Extra-legal Variables Affecting Sentencing Decisions.” Psychological Reports 50: 611-19.
234. Lictblau, Eric. August 24, 2005. “Profiling Report Leads to a Demotion.” The New York Times.
235. Lieber, Michael J., and Jayne M. Stairs. 1999. “Race, Contexts, and the Use of Intake Diversion.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 36: 56-86.
236. Liebman, James. 2000. “The Overproduction of Death.” Columbia Law Review 100: 2030-156.
237. Lind, E. Allan. 1982. “The Psychology of Courtroom Procedure,” in The Psychology of the Courtroom, ed. N. Kerr and R. Bray. New York: Academic Press: 13-37.
238. Lind, E. Allan, and Tom R. Tyler. 1988. The Social Psychology of Procedural Justice. New York: Plenum Press.
239. Lind, E. Allan, Tom R. Tyler, and Yuen J. Huo. 1997. “Procedural Context and Culture: Variation in the Antecedents of Procedural Justice Judgments.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73: 767-80.
240. Lipset, Seymour Martin, and William Schneider. 1978. “The Bakke Case: How Would It Be Decided at the Bar of Public Opinion?” Public Opinion 1: 38-48.
241. Liska, Allen E., and Mitchell B. Chamlin. 1984. “Social Structure and Crime Control among Macrosocial Units.” American Journal of Sociology 90: 3 83-95.
242. Long, J. Scott, and Jeremy Freese. 2006. Regression Models for Categorical Dependent Variables Using Stata. 2nd ed. college Station, TX: Stata Press.
243. Longmire, Dennis R. 1996. “Americans’ Attitudes about the Ultimate Weapon: Capital Punishment,” in Americans View Crime and Justice: A National Public Opinion Survey, ed. T. J. Flanagan and D. R. Longmire. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications: 93-108.
244. Lord, Charles G., Lee Ross, and Mark R. Lepper. 1979. “Biased Assimilation and Attitude Polarization: The Effects of Prior Theories on Subsequently Considered Evidence.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37: 2098-109.
245. Lowry, Dennis T., Tam Ching, Josephine Nio, and Dennis W. Leitner. 2003. “Setting the Public Fear Agenda: A Longitudinal Analysis of Network TV Crime Reporting, Public Perceptions of Crime, and FBI Crime Statistics.” Journal of Communication 53: 61-73.
246. Luskin, Robert C., James S. Fishkin, and Roger Jowell. 2002. “Considered Opinions: Deliberative Polling in Britain.” British Journal of Political Science 32: 455-87.
247. MacDonald, J. M. 2001. “Analytic Methods for Examining Race and Ethnic Disparity in the Juvenile Courts.” Journal of Criminal Justice 29 (6): 507-19
248. Maclin, Tracey. 1998. “Race and the Fourth Amendment.” Vanderbilt Law Review 51 (2): 333-94.
249. Major, Brenda, and Toni Schmader. 2001. “Legitimacy and the Construal of Social Disadvantage,” in The Psychology of Legitimacy: Emerging Perspectives on Ideology, Justice and Intergroup Relations, ed. J. T. Jost and B. Major. New York: Cambridge University Press: 176-204.
250. Manza, Jeff, and Christopher Uggen. 2006. Locked Out: Felon Disenfranchisement and American Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press.
251. Martinez, Jr., Ramiro. 2005. “Moving Beyond Black and White Violence: African American, Haitian, and Latino Homicides in Miami,” in Violent Crime: Assessing Race and Ethnic Differences, ed. Darnell F. Hawkins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 22-43.
252. Massey, Douglas S., and Nancy A. Denton. 1993. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
253. Matthews, Roger. 2005. “The Myth of Punitiveness.” Theoretical Criminology 9: 175-201.
254. Mauer, Marc. 1999. Race to Incarcerate. New York: The New Press.
255. Mauer, Marc. 2009. Support for Crack Cocaine Sentencing Reform Signals More Rational Approach to Public Safety. Available at http://jurist.law.pitt.hotline/2009/06/support-for-crack-cocaine-sentencing.php (accessed January 3, 2010).
256. Maxfield, Linda D., and John H. Kramer. 1998. “Substantial Assistance: An Empirical Yardstick Gauging Equity in current Federal Policy and Practice.” Washington, D.c.: U.S. Sentencing commission.
257. Mazzella, Ronald, and Alan Feingold. 1994. “The effects of Physical Attractiveness, Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Gender of Defendants and Victims on Judgments of Mock Jurors: A Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 24: 1315-44.
258. McCann, Jay A. 1997. “Electoral Choices and Core Value Change: The 1992 Presidential Campaign.” American Journal of Political Science 41: 564-83.
259. McCauley, Clark, Margo Durham, John B. Copley, and John P. Johnson. 1985. “Patients’ Perceptions of Treatment for Kidney Failure: The Impact of Personal Experience on Population Predictions.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 21: 138-48.
260. McClain, Paula D., Niambi M. Carter, Victoria M. DeFrancesco Soto, Monique L. Lyle, Jeffrey D. Grynaviski, Shala C. Nunnally, Thomas J. Scotto, J. Alan Kendrick, Gerald F. Lackey, and Kendra Davenport Cotton. 2006. “Racial Distancing in a Southern City: Latino Immigrants’ Views of Black Americans.” Journal of Politics 68: 571-84.
261. McConahay, John B. 1986. “Modern Racism, Ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale,” in Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism, ed. J. F. Dovidio and S. L. Gaertner. Orlando, FL: Academic Press: 91-125.
262. McGarrell, Edmund F., and Marla Sandys. 1996. “The Misperception of Public Opinion toward Capital Punishment.” American Behavioral Scientist 39 (4): 500-13.
263. Meares, Tracey L. 1997. “Charting Race and Class Differences toward Drug Legalization and Law Enforcement: Lessons for Federal Criminal Law.” Buffalo Criminal Law Review 1: 137-74.
264. Mendelberg, Tali. 1997. “Executing Hortons: Racial Crime in the 1988 Presidential Campaign.” Public Opinion Quarterly 61: 134-57.
265. Mendelberg, Tali. 2001. The Race Card: Campaign Strategy, Implicit Messages, and the Norm of Equality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
266. Miller, Jerome G. 1996. Search and Destroy: African-American Males in the Criminal Justice System. New York: Cambridge University Press.
267. Monteith, Margo J., Leslie Ashburn-Nardo, Corrine Voils, and Alex M. Czopp. 2002. “Putting the Brakes on Prejudice: On the Development and Operation of Cues for Control.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83: 1029-50.
268. Mooney, Christopher Z., and Mei-Hsien Lee. 2000. “The Influence of Values on Consensus and Contentious Morality Policy: U.S. Death Penalty Reform, 1956-82.” Journal of Politics 62 (1): 223-39.
269. Murphy, Dean. October 24, 2004. “California Rethinking ‘3-Strikes’ Sentencing.” New York Times.
270. Murr, Andrew. 2005. “Back on the Mean Streets: A Cop Shoots, A Black Kid Falls and L.A. Is on the Edge Again.” Available at http://www.newsweek.com/id/48806 (accessed January 3, 2010).
271. Murty, Komanduri S., Julian B. Roebuck, and Joann D. Smith. 1990. “The image of the Police in Black Atlanta communities.” Journal of Police Science and Administration 17: 250-7.
272. Mutz, Diana C. 1992. “Mass Media and the Depoliticization of Personal Experience.” American Journal of Political Science 36: 483-508.
273. Mutz, Diana C., and Jeffery Mondak. 1997. “Dimensions of Sociotropic Behavior: Group-Based Judgments of Fairness and Well-Being.” American Journal of Political Science 41: 284-308.
274. Myers, Martha A., and John Hagan. 1979. “Private and Public Trouble: Prosecutors and the Allocation of Court Resources.” Social Problems 26: 439-51.
275. Myers, Martha A., and Susette M. Talarico. 1987. The Social Contexts of Criminal Sentencing. New York: Springer-Verlag.
276. Nelson, Thomas, and Donald R. Kinder. 1996. “Issue Frames and Group Centrism in American Public Opinion.” Journal of Politics 58: 1055-78.
277. Nelson, Thomas E., and Zoe M. Oxley. 1999. “Issue Framing Effects on Belief Importance and Opinion.” Journal of Politics 61: 1040-67.
278. Nelson, Thomas E., Rosalee A. Clawson, and Zoe M. Oxley. 1997. “Media Framing of a Civil Liberties Conflict and its Effect on Tolerance.” American Political Science Review 91: 567-83.
279. Nelson, Thomas E., Kira Sanbonmatsu, and Harwood K. McClerking. 2007. “Playing a Different Race Card: Examining the Limits of Elite Influence on Perceptions of Racism.” The Journal of Politics 69: 416-29.
280. Neville, Helen A., and Aalece O. Pugh. 1997. “General and Cultural-specific Factors Influencing African American Women’s Reporting Patterns and Perceived Social Support following Sexual Assault: An Exploratory Investigation.” Violence against Women 3: 361-81.
281. Nice, David C. 1992. “The States and the Death Penalty.” The Western Political Quarterly 45: 1037-48.
282. Nicholson-Crotty, Sean, and Kenneth J. Meier. 2003. “Crime and Punishment: The Politics of Federal Criminal Justice Sanctions.” Political Research Quarterly 56: 119-26.
283. Nicholson-Crotty, Sean, and Kenneth J. Meier. 2000. “The Multi-Layered Impact of Public Opinion on Capital Punishment Implementation in the American States.” Political Research Quarterly 53: 771-93.
284. Oliver, Eric J. 2010. The Paradoxes of Segregation: Race, Neighborhood, and Civic Life in Multiethnic America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
285. Oliver, Eric J., and Tali Mendelberg. 2000. “Reconsidering the Environmental Determinants of White Racial Attitudes.” American Journal of Political Science 41 (3): 574-89.
286. Oliver, Wilford M. 1998. “Presidential Rhetoric on Crime and Public Opinion.” Criminal Justice Review 23: 139-60.
287. Oskamp, Stuart. 1991. Attitudes and Opinions. 2nd ed. Englewood cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
288. Page, Benjamin, and Robert Shapiro. 1992. The Rational Public. chicago: University of chicago Press.
289. Pager, Devah, and Hana Shepherd. 2008. “The Sociology of Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in employment, Housing, Credit, and Consumer Markets.” Annual Review of Sociology 34: 181-209.
290. Parker, Keith D., Anne B. Onyekwuluje, and Komanduri S. Murty. 1995. “African-Americans’ Attitudes toward the Local Police: A Multivariate Analysis.” Journal of Black Studies 25: 396-409.
291. Paternoster, Raymond. 1991. “Prosecutorial Discretion and Capital Sentencing in North and South carolina,” in The Death Penalty in America: Current Research, ed. R. M. Bohm. cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing: 39-53.
292. Peek, Charles W., George D. Lowe, and Jon P. Alston. 1981. “Race and Attitudes toward Local Police.” Journal of Black Studies 11: 361-74.
293. Peffley, Mark, and Jon Hurwitz. 1985. “A Hierarchical Model of Attitude Constraint.” American Journal of Political Science 29: 871-90.
294. Peffley, Mark, and Jon Hurwitz. 1992. “International Events and Foreign Policy Beliefs: Public Response to Changing Soviet-American Relations.” American Journal of Political Science 36 (2): 431-61.
295. Peffley, Mark, and Jon Hurwitz. 1993. “Models of Attitude Constraint in Foreign Affairs.” Political Behavior 15: 61-90.
296. Peffley, Mark, and Jon Hurwitz. 2002. “The Racial Component of ‘Race-Neutral’ Crime Policy Attitudes.” Political Psychology 23 (1): 59-75.
297. Peffley, Mark, and Jon Hurwitz. 2007. “Resistance and Persuasion to Arguments against the Death Penalty among Whites and Blacks.” American Journal of Political Science 51: 996-1012.
298. Peffley, Mark, Jon Hurwitz, and Paul Sniderman. 1997. “Racial Stereotypes and Whites’ Political Views of Blacks in the Context of Welfare and Crime.” American Journal of Political Science 41 (1): 30-60.
299. Peffley, Mark, Todd Shields, and Bruce Williams. 1996. “The Intersection of Race and Crime in Television News: An Experimental Study.” Political Communication 13: 309-27.
300. Perry, Ronald W. 1980. “Social Status and the Black Violence Hypothesis.” Journal of Social Psychology 111: 131-7.
301. Petersilia, Joan. 1983. Racial Disparities in the Criminal Justice System: A Summary. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.
302. Petty RichardE., and John T Cacioppo. 1996. Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary Approaches. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
303. Pfeiffer, Jeffrey E., and James R. P. Ogloff. 1991. “Ambiguity and Guilt Determinations: A Modern Racism Perspective.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 21: 1713-25.
304. Pierce, Glenn L. 1985. “Race and Prosecutorial Discretion in Homicide Cases.” Law and Society Review 17: 587-621.
305. Piston, Spencer. 2010. “How Explicit Racial Prejudice Hurt Obama in the 2008 Presidential Election.” Political Behavior 32 (in press).
306. Pomper, Gerald M. 1989. “The Nominations,” in The Election of 1988: Reports and Interpretations, ed. G. M. Pomper, R. K. Baker, W. D. Burnham, B. G. Farah, M. R. Hershey, E. Klein, and W. C. McWilliams. Chatham, NJ: Chatham House: 33-72.
307. Pratt, John. 2000. “Emotive and Ostentatious Punishment.” Punishment and Society 2: 417-39.
308. Prior, Markus. 2007. Post-Broadcast Democracy: How Media Choice Increases Inequality in Political Involvement and Polarizes Elections. New York: Cambridge University Press.
309. Provine, Doris Marie. 2007. Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
310. Radelet, M. and G. Pierce. 1985. “Race and Prosecutorial Discretion in Homicide Cases.” Law and Society Review 17: 587-621.
311. Rahn, Wendy M. 1993. “The Role of Partisan Stereotypes in Information Processing about Political Candidates.” American Journal of Political Science 37: 472-96.
312. Rasinski, Kenneth A. 1987. “What’s Fair Is Fair - Or Is It? Value Differences Underlying Public Views about Social Justice.” Journal of Peraonality and Social Psychology 53: 201-11.
313. Rector, Neil, Michael Bagby, and Robert Nicholson. 1993. “The Effect of Prejudice and Judicial Ambiguity on Defendant Guilt Ratings.” Journal of Social Psychology 133: 651-9.
314. Riedel, Marc. 2003. “Homicide in Los Angeles County: A Study of Latino Victimization,” in Violent Crime: Assessing Race and Ethnic Differences, ed. Darnell F. Hawkins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 44-66.
315. Richburg, Keith B. July 13, 2009. “States Seek Less Costly Substitutes for Prison.” Washington Post.
316. Roberts, Julian V. 1992. “Public Opinion, Crime, and Criminal Justice,” Crime and Justice 16: 99-180.
317. Roberts, Julian V., and Loretta J. Stalans. 1997. Public Opinion, Crime and Criminal Justice. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
318. Rokeach, Milton. 1968. Beliefs, Attitudes and Values: A Theory of Organization and Change. San Francisco: Josey-Bass.
319. Rokeach, Milton. 1973. The Nature of Human Values. New York: Free Press.
320. Romer, Daniel, Kathleen Hall Jamieson, and Sean Aday. 2003. “Television News and the Cultivation of Fear of Crime.” The Journal of Communication 53 (1): 88-104.
321. Rossi, Peter H., and Andy B. Anderson. 1982. “The Factorial Survey Approach: An Introduction,” in Measuring Social Judgments: The Factorial Survey Approach, ed. P. H. Rossi and S. L. Nock. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications: 15-67.
322. Rubin, Zick, and Letitia Anne Peplau. 1975. “Who Believes in a Just World?” Journal of Social Issues 31: 65-89.
323. Sampson, Robert J., and Dawn Jeglum Bartusch. 1998. “Legal Cynicism and (Subculture?) Tolerance of Deviance: The Neighborhood Context of Racial Differences.” Law and Society Review 32: 777-804.
324. Sasson, Theodore. 1995. Crime Talk: How Citizens Construct a Social Problem. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
325. Sattler, David N., Mary G. Adams, and Barrett Watts. 1995. “Personal Experience on Judgments about Natural Disasters.” Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 10: 891-8.
326. Scaglion, Richard, and Richard G. Condon. 1980. “Determinants of Attitudes toward City Police.” Criminology 17: 485-94.
327. Schlozman, Kay, and Sidney Verba. 1979. Injury to Insult: Unemployment, Class and Political Response. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
328. Schuman, Howard, Charlotte Steeh, Lawrence Bobo, and Maria Krysan. 1998. Racial Attitudes in America: Trends and Interpretations. Rev. ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
329. Schwartz, Shalom H., and Wolfgang Bilsky. 1987. “Toward a Psychological Structure of Human Values.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53: 550-62.
330. Schwartz, Shalom H., and Wolfgang Bilsky. 1990. “Toward a Theory of the Universal Content and Structure of Values: Extensions and Cross-Cultural Replications.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58: 878-91.
331. Sears, David, and John B. McConahay. 1982. The Politics of Violence: The New Urban Blacks and the Watts Riots. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
332. Sears, David O. 1986. “College Sophomores in the Laboratory: Influences of a Narrow Data Base on Social Psychology’s View of Human Nature.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51: 515-30.
333. Sears, David O., Leonie Huddy, and Robert Jervis. 2003. Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
334. Sears, David O., Jim Sinadius, and Lawrence Bobo. 2000. Racialized Politics: The Debate about Racism in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
335. Sears, David O., Colette Van Laar, Mary Carrillo, and Rick Kosterman. 1997. “Is It Really Racism? The Origins of White Americans’ Opposition to Race-Targeted Policies.” The Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1): 16-53.
336. Seligman, Clive, and Albert N. Katz. 1996. “The Dynamics of Value Systems,” in The Psychology of Values, ed. C. Seligman, J. M. Olson, and M. P. Zanna. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum: 53-75.
337. Sheng, Shing-Yuan. 1995. “ANES Measurement of Values and Predispositions, 1984-1992,” in Technical Report Series No. neso10168: American national election Studies. Ann Arbor, MI: American national Election Studies: 1-32.
338. Sidanius, James. 1993. “The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression: A Social Dominance Perspective,” in Explorations in Political Psychology, ed. S. Iyengar and W. J. McGuire. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
339. Sigelman, Lee, and Emmett H. Buell Jr. 2004. “Avoidance or Engagement? Issue Convergence in U.S. Presidential Campaigns, 1960-2000.” American Journal of Political Science 48: 650-61.
340. Sigelman, Lee, and Susan Welch. 1991. Black Americans’ Views of Racial Inequality: The Dream Deferred. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
341. Sigelman, Lee, Susan Welch, Timothy Bledsoe, and Michael Coombs. 1997. “Police Brutality and Public Perceptions of Racial Discrimination: A Tale of Two Beatings.” Political Research Quarterly 50: 777-91.
342. Sims, Barbara, and Eric Johnston. 2004. “Examining Public Opinion about Crime and Justice: A Statewide Study.” Criminal Justice Policy Review 15: 260-93.
343. Skitka, Linda J., and Philip E. Tetlock. 1992. “Allocation of Scarce Resources: A Contingency Model of Distributive Justice.” Journal of Experimental Psychology 28: 491-522.
344. Skolnick, Jerome H. 1966. Justice without Trial: Law Enforcement in Democratic Society. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
345. Smith, Douglas A. 1986. “The Neighborhood Context of Police Behavior,” in Communities and Crime, ed. J. Albert J. Reiss and M. Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
346. Smith, Douglas A., Christy A. Visher, and Laura A. Davidson. 1984. “Equity and Discretionary Justice: The Influence of Race on Police Arrest Decisions.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 75: 234-49.
347. Smith, Kevin B. 2004. “The Politics of Punishment: Evaluating Political Explanations of Incarceration Rates.” Journal of Politics 66: 925-38.
348. Snell, Tracy L. 2001. “Capital Punishment 2000 NCJ 190598.” Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
349. Sniderman, Paul M., and Richard A. Brody. 1977. “Coping: The Ethic of Self-Reliance.” American Journal of Political Science 21: 501-21.
350. Sniderman, Paul M., and Edward G. Carmines. 1997. Reaching Beyond Race. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
351. Sniderman, Paul M., and Douglas B. Grob. 1996. “Innovations in Experimental Design in Attitude Surveys.” Annual Review of Sociology 22: 377-99.
352. Sniderman, Paul M., and Thomas Piazza. 1993. The Scar of Race. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
353. Sniderman, Paul M., Richard A. Brody, and Phillip E. Tetlock. 1993. Reasoning and Choice: Explorations in Political Psychology. cambridge, MA: cambridge University Press.
354. Soss, Joe. 1999. “Lessons of Welfare: Policy Design, Political Learning and Political Action.” American Political Science Review 93: 363-80.
355. Soss, Joe, and Sanford F. Schram. 2007. “A Public Transformed? Welfare Reform as Policy Feedback.” American Political Science Review 101 (1): 111-27.
356. Soss, Joe, Laura Langbein, and Alan R. Metelko. 2003. “Why Do White Americans Support the Death Penalty?” Journal of Politics 65: 397-421.
357. Spohn, cassia. 2002. How Do Judges Decide: The Search for Fairness and Justice in Punishment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
358. Spohn, cassia. 2009. How Do Judges Decide: The Search for Fairness and Justice in Punishment. 2nd ed. Los Angeles: Sage Publications.
359. Spohn, Cassia C. 2000. “Thirty Years of Sentencing Reform: The Quest for a Racially Neutral Sentencing Process.” Criminal Justice 3: 427-501.
360. Stinchcombe, Arthur, Rebecca Adams, Carol A. Heimer, Kim Lane Schepple, Tom W. Smith, and D. Garth Taylor. 1980. Crime and Punishment - Changing Attitudes in America. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
361. Stuntz, William J. 1998. “Race, Class, and Drugs.” Columbia Law Review 98: 1795-842.
362. Sunnafrank, M., and N. E. Fontes. 1983. “General Crime Related Racial Stereotypes and Influence on Juridicial Decisions.” Cornell Journal of Social Relations 17: 1-15.
363. Taber, Charles S., and Milton Lodge. 2006. “Motivated Skepticism in the Evaluation of Political Beliefs.” American Journal of Political Science 50 (3): 755-69.
364. Taber, Charles S., Damon Cann, and Simona Kucsova. 2009. “The Motivated Processing of Political Arguments.” Political Behavior 31: 137-55.
365. Tate, Katherine. 1993. From Protest to Politics: The New Black Voters in American Elections. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
366. Tate, Katherine. 2003. Black Faces in the Mirror: African Americans and their Representatives in the U.S. Congress. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
367. Taylor, Marylee C. 1998. “How White Attitudes Vary with the Racial Composition of Local Populations: Numbers Count.” American Sociological Review 63 (4): 512-35.
368. Tesler, Michael, and David Sears. 2009. “Barack Obama and the Two Sides of Symbolic Racism: Explaining the Effects of Racial Resentment in the Primaries and Beyond.” Paper presented at the Midwest Political Science Association 67th Annual National Conference, April 2-5, Chicago.
369. Tetlock, Philip E. 1986. “A Value Pluralism Model of Ideological Reasoning.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50: 819-27.
370. Thaler, Richard H. 1987. “The Psychology and Economics Conference Handbook: comments on Simon, on Einhorn and Hogarth, and on Tversky and Kahneman,” in Rational Choice: The Contrast between Economics and Psychology, ed. R. M. Hogarth and M. W. Reder. chicago: University of Chicago Press: 95-100.
371. Thibaut, John, and lauren S. Walker. 1975. Procedural Justice: A Psychological Analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: lawrence Erlbaum.
372. Thomas, W. John, and Dorothy E. Stubbe. 1996. “A Comparison of correctional and Mental Health Referrals in the Juvenile court.” Journal of Psychiatry and Law 24: 379-400.
373. Tonry, Michael. 1995. Malign Neglect: Race, Crime, and Punishment in America. New York: Oxford University Press.
374. Tuch, Steven A., and Ronald Weitzer. 1997. “Racial Differences in Attitudes toward the Police.” Public Opinion Quarterly 61: 642-63.
375. Tyler, Tom R. 1988. “What Is Procedural Justice? Criteria Used by Citizens to Assess the Fairness of legal Procedures.” Law and Society Review 22: 103-35.
376. Tyler, Tom R. 1990. Why People Obey the Law. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
377. Tyler, Tom R. 2000. “Social Justice: Outcome and Procedure.” International Journal of Psychology 35: 117-25.
378. Tyler, Tom R. 2001. “A Psychological Perspective on the legitimacy of Institutions and Authorities,” in The Psychology of Legitimacy: Emerging Perspectives on Ideology, Justice and Intergroup Relations, ed. J. T. Jost and B. Major. New York: Cambridge University Press.
379. Tyler, Tom R., and Robert J. Boeckmann. 1997. “Three Strikes and You Are Out, But Why? The Psychology of Public Support for Punishing Rule Breakers.” Law and Society Review 31 (2): 237-65.
380. Tyler, Tom R., and Robert Folger. 1980. “Distributional and Procedural Aspects of Satisfaction with Citizen-Police Encounters.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 1: 281-92.
381. Tyler, Tom R., Peter Degoey, and Heather Smith. 1996. “Understanding Why the Justice of Group Procedures Matters: A Test of the Psychological Dynamics of the Group-Value Model.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70: 913-30.
382. Tyler, Tom R., Robert J. Boeckmann, Heather J. Smith, and Yuen J. Huo. 1997. Social Justice in a Diverse Society. Boulder, CO: Westview.
383. Tyler, T. R., and R. Weber. 1982. “Support for the Death Penalty: Instrumental Response to Crime or Symbolic Attitude?” Law and Society Review 17 (1): 121-45.
384. U.S. National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. 1968. “Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders.” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
385. Valentino, Nicholas A. 1999. “Crime News and the Priming of Racial Attitudes during Evaluations of the President.” Public Opinion Quarterly 63: 293-320.
386. Valentino, Nicholas A., Vincent L. Hutchings, and Ismael K. White. 2002. “Cues that Matter: How Political Ads Prime Racial Attitudes during Campaigns.” American Political Science Review 96: 75-90.
387. Van den Bos, Kees, E. Allan Lind, and Henk A. M. Wilke. 2001. “The Psychology of Procedural and Distributive Justice Viewed from the Perspective of Fairness Heuristic Theory,” in Justice in the Workplace: From Theory to Practice, ed. R. Cropanzano. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum: 49-66.
388. Van den Bos, Kees, E. Allan Lind, Riel Vermunt, and Henk A. M. Wilke. 1997. “How Do I Judge My Outcome When I Do Not Know the Outcome of Others? The Psychology of the Fair Process Effect.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72: 1034-46.
389. Vermunt, Riel, and Herman Steensma. 2003. “Physiological Relaxation: Stress Reduction through Fair Treatment.” Social Justice Research 16: 135-49.
390. Walker, Samuel, Cassia Spohn, and Miriam De Lone. 2004. The Color of Justice: Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America. 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning.
391. Walker, W. Laurens, and E. Allan Lind. 1984. “Psychological Studies of Procedural Models,” in Progress in Applied Social Psychology, vol. 2, ed. G. M. Stephenson and J. H. Davis. New York: John Wiley and Sons: 293-313.
392. Weitzer, Ronald, and Steven Tuch. 2002. “Perceptions of Racial Profiling: Race, Class, and Personal Experience.” Criminology 40: 435-56.
393. Weitzer, Ronald, and Steven Tuch. 2004. “Race and Perceptions of Police Misconduct.” Social Problems 51: 305-25.
394. Weitzer, Ronald, and Steven A. Tuch. 2006. Race and Policing in America: Conflict and Reform. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
395. Welch, Susan, Michael Combs, and John Gruhl. 1988. “Do Black Judges Make a Difference?” American Journal of Political Science 32 (1): 126-36.
396. Welch, Susan, Lee Sigelman, Tim Bledsoe, and Michael Combs. 2001. Race and Place: Residence and Race Relations in an American City. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
397. Western, Bruce. 2006. Punishment and Inequality in America. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
398. White, Ismail K. 2007. “When Race Matters and When It Doesn’t: Racial Group Differences in Response to Racial Cues.” American Political Science Review 101: 339-54.
399. Wilbanks, William. 1987. The Myth of a Racist Criminal Justice System. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
400. Wilber, Del Quentin. June 29, 2009. “Two Judges Target Cocaine Penalties: Disparity for crack crimes criticized,” The Washington Power.
401. Williams, Kirk R., and Susan Drake. 1980. “Social Structure, crimes, and criminalization: An Empirical Examination of the conflict Perspective.” Sociological Quarterly 21 (4): 563-75.
402. Williams, Linda Meyer, and Ronald A. Farrell. 1990. “Legal Responses to child Sexual Abuse in Day care.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 17: 284-302.
403. Wilson, James Q. 1968. Varieties of Police Behavior: The Management of Law and Order in Eight Communities. cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
404. Wordes, Madeline, and Timothy S. Bynum. 1995. “Policing Juveniles: Is There Bias against Youths of color?” in Minorities in Juvenile Justice, ed. K. K. Leonard, c. E. Pope, and W. Feyerherm. Thousand Oaks, cA: Sage Publications: 47-65.
405. Wordes, Madeline, Timothy S. Bynum, and charles J. corley. 1994. “Locking up Youth: The Impact of Race on Detention Decisions.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 31: 149-65.
406. Yates, Jeff, and Richard Fording. 2005. “Politics and State Punitiveness in Black and White.” Journal of Politics 67 (4): 1099-121.
407. Young, Robert L. 1991. “Race, conceptions of crime and Justice, and Support for the Death Penalty.” Social Psychology Quarterly 54 (1): 67-75.
408. Zaller, John. 1992. The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. cambridge, MA: cambridge University Press.
409. Zimring, Franklin E. 2007. The Great American Crime Decline. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.