Prostate cancer and neuroendocrine differentiation: More neuronal, less endocrine?

Frontiers in Oncology

Volumn 5, Issue FEB, 2015, Pages

  Grigore, Alexandru Dan ^a   Ben Jacob, Eshel ^a,c   Farach Carson, Mary C ^a,b  

^a RICE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Rice University   (United States)

^c TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

Author keywords

Chromogranin A; Interleukin 6; Neural differentiation; Neuroendocrine differentiation; Prostate cancer

Indexed keywords

2 METHYLACYL COENZYME A RACEMASE; ANALGESIC AGENT; BETA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR; BETA 3 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR; BOMBESIN; BOTULINUM TOXIN; CALCITONIN; CAVEOLIN 1; CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN ALPHA SUBUNIT; CHROMOGRANIN A; CYCLIC AMP DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE; CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASE 2; CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASE 4; CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASE 6; CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASE INHIBITOR 1B; CYTOKERATIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; INTERLEUKIN 6; MUSCARINIC M1 RECEPTOR; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; NEURON SPECIFIC ENOLASE; NEUROTENSIN; PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN; PROTEIN KINASE C; SEROTONIN; SOMATOSTATIN; STAT3 PROTEIN; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA1; UNINDEXED DRUG; VOLTAGE GATED SODIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT;

ACTION POTENTIAL; ANDROGEN DEPRIVATION THERAPY; APOPTOSIS; ARTICLE; BINDING AFFINITY; CANCER GROWTH; CANCER PROGNOSIS; CANCER STAGING; CASTRATE RESISTANCE; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL PROLIFERATION; DOWN REGULATION; G1 PHASE CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINT; GLEASON SCORE; HUMAN; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; IMMUNOMODULATION; LARGE CORE NEEDLE BIOPSY; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); NERVE CELL DIFFERENTIATION; NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTION; NEUROENDOCRINE DIFFERENTIATION; NEUROSECRETORY CELL; PATHOGENESIS; PHOSPHORYLATION; PROSTATE CANCER; PROSTATE HYPERTROPHY; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SMALL CELL CARCINOMA; SPINAL CORD INJURY; SURVIVAL; TUMOR INVASION; UPREGULATION;

EID: 84923556020     PISSN: None     EISSN: 2234943X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2015.00037     Document Type: Article

References (201)

1. Tezel, E., Nagasaka, T., Nomoto, S., Sugimoto, H., Nakao, A. (2000) Neuroendocrine like differentiation in patients with pancreatic carcinoma. Cancer 89(11):2230-2236. doi:10.1002/1097-0142(20001201)89:113.0.CO;2-X
2. Montuenga, L. M., Guembe, L., Burrell, M. A., Bodegas, M. E., Calvo, A., Sola, J. J., et al. (2003) The diffuse endocrine system: from embryogenesis to carcinogenesis. Prog Histochem Cytochem 38(2):155-272. doi:10.1016/S0079-6336(03)80004-9
3. di Sant'Agnese, P. A. (1992) Neuroendocrine differentiation in carcinoma of the prostate: diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic implications. Cancer 70(1 Suppl):254-268. doi:10.1002/1097-0142(19920701)70:1+<254::AID-CNCR2820701312>3.0.CO;2-E
4. Linnoila, R. I. (2006) Functional facets of the pulmonary neuroendocrine system. Lab Invest 86(5):425-444. doi:10.1038/labinvest.3700412
5. Gunawardene, A. R., Corfe, B. M., Staton, C. A. (2011) Classification and functions of enteroendocrine cells of the lower gastrointestinal tract. Int J Exp Pathol 92(4):219-231. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2613.2011.00767.x
6. Abrahamsson, P. A. (1996) Neuroendocrine differentiation and hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Prostate Suppl 6:3-8.
7. Daneshmand, S., Dorff, T. B., Quek, M. L., Cai, J., Pike, M. C., Nichols, P. W., et al. (2005) Ethnic differences in neuroendocrine cell expression in normal human prostatic tissue. Urology 65(5):1008-1012. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2004.11.052
8. Sun, Y., Niu, J., Huang, J. (2009) Neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate cancer. Am J Transl Res 1(2):148-162.
9. Angelsen, A., Syversen, U., Haugen, O. A., Stridsberg, M., Mjølnerød, O. K., Waldum, H. L. (1997) Neuroendocrine differentiation in carcinomas of the prostate: do neuroendocrine serum markers reflect immunohistochemical findings? Prostate 30(1):1-6. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0045(19970101)30:13.0.CO;2-T
10. Sion-Vardy, N., Tzikinovsky, A., Bolotyn, A., Segal, S., Fishman, D. (2004) Augmented expression of chromogranin A and serotonin in peri-malignant benign prostate epithelium as compared to adenocarcinoma. Pathol Res Pract 200(7-8):493-499. doi:10.1016/j.prp.2004.06.002
11. Levine, L., Lucci, J. A. 3rd, Pazdrak, B., Cheng, J. Z., Guo, Y. S., Townsend, C. M. Jr., et al. (2003) Bombesin stimulates nuclear factor kappa B activation and expression of proangiogenic factors in prostate cancer cells. Cancer Res 63(13):3495-3502.
12. Matei, D. V., Renne, G., Pimentel, M., Sandri, M. T., Zorzino, L., Botteri, E., et al. (2012) Neuroendocrine differentiation in castration-resistant prostate cancer: a systematic diagnostic attempt. Clin Genitourin Cancer 10(3):164-173. doi:10.1016/j.clgc.2011.12.004
13. Kazzaz, B. A. (1974) Argentaffin and argyrophil cells in the prostate. J Pathol 112(3):189-193. doi:10.1002/path.1711120310
14. D'Amico, M. A., Ghinassi, B., Izzicupo, P., Manzoli, L., Di Baldassarre, A. (2014) Biological function and clinical relevance of chromogranin A and derived peptides. Endocr Connect 3(2):R45-R54. doi:10.1530/EC-14-0027
15. Xue, Y., Smedts, F., Verhofstad, A., Debruyne, F., de la Rosette, J., Schalken, J. (1998) Cell kinetics of prostate exocrine and neuroendocrine epithelium and their differential interrelationship: new perspectives. Prostate Suppl 8:62-73. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097 0045(1998)8+<62::AID-PROS10>3.0.CO;2-P
16. Jongsma, J., Oomen, M. H., Noordzij, M. A., Van Weerden, V. M., Maartens, G. J., van der Kwast, T. H., et al. (1999) Kinetics of neuroendocrine differentiation in an androgen dependent human prostate xenograft model. Am J Pathol 154(2):543-551. doi:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)65300-X
17. Bonkhoff, H., Wernert, N., Dhom, G., Remberger, K. (1991) Relation of endocrine paracrine cells to cell proliferation in normal, hyperplastic, and neoplastic human prostate. Prostate 19(2):91-98. doi:10.1002/pros.2990190202
18. Bonkhoff, H., Stein, U., Remberger, K. (1995) Endocrine-paracrine cell types in the prostate and prostatic adenocarcinoma are postmitotic cells. Hum Pathol 26(2):167-170. doi:10.1016/0046-8177(95)90033-0
19. Bonkhoff, H., Stein, U., Remberger, K. (1993) Androgen receptor status in endocrine paracrine cell types of the normal, hyperplastic, and neoplastic human prostate. Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histopathol 423(4):291-294. doi:10.1007/BF01606893
20. Bonkhoff, H. (2001) Neuroendocrine differentiation in human prostate cancer. Morphogenesis, proliferation and androgen receptor status. Ann Oncol 12 Suppl 2:S141- S144. doi:10.1093/annonc/12.suppl_2.S141
21. McVary, K. T., McKenna, K. E., Lee, C. (1998) Prostate innervation. Prostate Suppl 8:2-13. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0045(1998)8+<2::AID-PROS2>3.0.CO;2-U
22. Acosta, S., Dizeyi, N., Pierzynowski, S., Alm, P., Abrahamsson, P. A. (2001) Neuroendocrine cells and nerves in the prostate of the Guinea pig: effects of peripheral denervation and castration. Prostate 46(3):191-199. doi:10.1002/1097-0045(20010215)46:33.3.CO;2-4
23. Vashchenko, N., Abrahamsson, P. A. (2005) Neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate cancer: implications for new treatment modalities. Eur Urol 47(2):147-155. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2004.09.007
24. Aumüller, G., Leonhardt, M., Janssen, M., Konrad, L., Bjartell, A., Abrahamsson, P. A. (1999) Neurogenic origin of human prostate endocrine cells. Urology 53(5):1041-1048. doi:10.1016/S0090-4295(98)00631-1
25. Blackwood, J. K., Williamson, S. C., Greaves, L. C., Wilson, L., Rigas, A. C., Sandher, R., Pickard, R. S., Robson, C. N., Turnbull, D. M., Taylor, R. W., Heer, R. (2011) In situ lineage tracking of human prostatic epithelial stem cell fate reveals a common clonal origin for basal and luminal cells. J Pathol 225(2):181-188. doi:10.1002/path.2965
26. Ousset, M., Van Keymeulen, A., Bouvencourt, G., Sharma, N., Achouri, Y., Simons, B. D., Blanpain, C. (2012) Multipotent and unipotent progenitors contribute to prostate postnatal development. Nat Cell Biol 14(11):1131-1138. doi:10.1038/ncb2600
27. Pignon, J. C., Grisanzio, C., Geng, Y., Song, J., Shivadasani, R. A., Signoretti, S. (2013) p63-expressing cells are the stem cells of developing prostate, bladder, and colorectal epithelia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110(20):8105-8110. doi:10.1073/pnas.1221216110
28. Sagnak, L., Topaloglu, H., Ozok, U., Ersoy, H. (2011) Prognostic significance of neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate adenocarcinoma. Clin Genitourin Cancer 9(2):73-80. doi:10.1016/j.clgc.2011.07.003
29. Epstein, J. I., Amin, M. B., Beltran, H., Lotan, T. L., Mosquera, J. M., Reuter, V. E., et al. (2014) Proposed morphologic classification of prostate cancer with neuroendocrine differentiation. Am J Surg Pathol 38(6):756-767. doi:10.1097/PAS.0000000000000208
30. Deorah, S., Rao, M. B., Raman, R., Gaitonde, K., Donovan, J. F. (2012) Survival of patients with small cell carcinoma of the prostate during 1973-2003: a population-based study. BJU Int 109(6):824-830. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2011.10523.x
31. Yao, J. L., Madeb, R., Bourne, P., Lei, J., Yang, X., Tickoo, S., et al. (2006) Small cell carcinoma of the prostate: an immunohistochemical study. Am J Surg Pathol 30(6):705-712. doi:10.1097/00000478-200606000-00005
32. Miyoshi, Y., Uemura, H., Kitami, K., Satomi, Y., Kubota, Y., Hosaka, M. (2001) Neuroendocrine differentiated small cell carcinoma presenting as recurrent prostate cancer after androgen deprivation therapy. BJU Int 88(9):982-983. doi:10.1046/j.1464-4096.2001.00936.x
33. Tanaka, M., Suzuki, Y., Takaoka, K., Suzuki, N., Murakami, S., Matsuzaki, O., et al. (2001) Progression of prostate cancer to neuroendocrine cell tumor. Int J Urol 8(8):431-436. doi:10.1046/j.1442-2042.2001.00347.x
34. Yashi, M., Terauchi, F., Nukui, A., Ochi, M., Yuzawa, M., Hara, Y., et al. (2006) Small cell neuroendocrine carcinoma as a variant form of prostate cancer recurrence: a case report and short literature review. Urol Oncol 24(4):313-317. doi:10.1016/j.urolonc.2005.08.022.
35. Wang, W., Epstein, J. I. (2008) Small cell carcinoma of the prostate. A morphologic and immunohistochemical study of 95 cases. Am J Surg Pathol 32(1):65-71. doi:10.1097/PAS.0b013e318058a96b
36. Beltran, H., Tagawa, S. T., Park, K., MacDonald, T., Milowsky, M. I., Mosquera, J. M., et al. (2012) Challenges in recognizing treatment-related neuroendocrine prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 30(36):e386-e389. doi:10.1200/JCO.2011.41.5166
37. Komiya, A., Yasuda, K., Nozaki, T., Fujiuchi, Y., Hayashi, S. I., Fuse, H. (2013) Small cell carcinoma of the prostate after high-dose-rate brachytherapy for low-risk prostatic adenocarcinoma. Oncol Lett 5(1):53-56. doi:10.3892/ol.2012.998
38. Reichard, C., Gilligan, T., Watts, K. E., Magi-Galluzzi, C., Klein, E. A. (2013) A 45-year old with neuroendocrine carcinoma of the prostate. Urology 81(4):714-716. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2012.12.029
39. Tagawa, S. T. (2014) Neuroendocrine prostate cancer after hormonal therapy: knowing is half the battle. J Clin Oncol 32(30):3360-3364. doi:10.1200/JCO.2014.57.5100
40. Wang, H. T., Yao, Y. H., Li, B. G., Tang, Y., Chang, J. W., Zhang, J. (2014) Neuroendocrine prostate cancer (NEPC) progressing from conventional prostatic adenocarcinoma: factors associated with time to development of NEPC and survival from NEPC diagnosis-a systematic review and pooled analysis. J Clin Oncol 32(30):3383-3390. doi:10.1200/JCO.2013.54.3553
41. Azzopardi, J. G., Evans, D. J. (1971) Argentaffin cells in prostatic carcinoma: differentiation from lipofuscin and melanin in prostatic epithelium. J Pathol 104(4):247-251. doi:10.1002/path.1711040406
42. Bubendorf, L., Sauter, G., Moch, H., Schmid, H. P., Gasser, T. C., Jordan, P., et al. (1996) Ki67 labelling index: an independent predictor of progression in prostate cancer treated by radical prostatectomy. J Pathol 178(4):437-441. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9896(199604)178:4<437::AID-PATH484>3.0.CO;2-4
43. Huang, J., Yao, J. L., di Sant'Agnese, P. A., Yang, Q., Bourne, P. A., Na, Y. (2006) Immunohistochemical characterization of neuroendocrine cells in prostate cancer. Prostate 66(13):1399-1406. doi:10.1002/pros.20434
44. Germann, M., Wetterwald, A., Guzman-Rámirez, N., van der Pluijm, G., Culig, S., Cecchini, M. G., et al. (2012) Stem-like cells with luminal progenitor phenotype survive castration in human prostate cancer. Stem Cells 30(6):1076-1086. doi:10.1002/stem.1087
45. Jiang, N., Zhu, S., Chen, J., Niu, Y., Zhou, L. (2013) A-methylacyl-CoA racemase (AMACR) and prostate cancer risk: a meta-analysis of 4,385 participants. PLoS One 8(10):e74386. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074386
46. Sauer, C. G., Roemer, A., Grobholz, R. (2006) Genetic analysis of neuroendocrine tumor cells in prostatic carcinoma. Prostate 66(3):227-234. doi:10.1002/pros.20338
47. Grobholz, R., Griebe, M., Sauer, C. G., Michel, M. S., Trojan, L., Bleyl, U. (2005) Influence of neuroendocrine tumor cells on proliferation in prostatic carcinoma. Hum Pathol 36(5):562-570. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2005.02.019
48. Jin, R. J., Wang, Y., Ishii, K., Tsukamoto, T., Shappell, S. B., Hayward, S. W., et al. (2004) NE-10 neuroendocrine cancer promotes the LNCaP xenograft growth in castrated mice. Cancer Res 64(15):5489-5495. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-03-3117
49. Deeble, P. D., Cox, M. E., Frierson, H. F. Jr., Sikes, R. A., Palmer, J. B., Davidson, R. J., et al. (2007) Androgen-independent growth and tumorigenesis of prostate cancer cells are enhanced by the presence of PKA-differentiated neuroendocrine cells. Cancer Res 67(8):3663-3672. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-06-2616
50. Terry, S., Beltran, H. (2014) The many faces of neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate cancer progression. Front Oncol 4:60. doi:10.3389/fonc.2014.00060
51. Jongsma, J., Oomen, M. H., Noordzij, M. A., Romijn, J. C., van der Kwast, T. H., Schröder, F. H., et al. (2000) Androgen-independent growth is induced by neuropeptides in human prostate cancer cell lines. Prostate 42(1):34-44. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0045(20000101)42:1<34::AID-PROS5>3.0.CO;2-2
52. Helle, K. B., Corti, A. (2014) Chromogranin A: a paradoxical player in angiogenesis and vascular biology. Cell Mol Life Sci (in press). doi:10.1007/s00018-014-1750-9
53. Veschini, L., Crippa, L., Dondossola, E., Doglioni, C., Corti, A., Ferrero, E. (2011) The vasostatin-1 fragment of chromogranin A preserves a quiescent phenotype in hypoxia driven endothelial cells and regulates tumor neovascularization. FASEB J 25(11):3906-3914. doi:10.1096/fj.11-182410
54. Crippa, L., Bianco, M., Colombo, B., Gasparri, A. M., Ferrero, E., Loh, Y. P., et al. (2013) A new chromogranin A-dependent angiogenic switch activated by thrombin. Blood 121(2):392-402. doi:10.1182/blood-2012-05-430314
55. Hanahan, D., Weinberg, R. A. (2000) The hallmarks of cancer. Cell 100(1):57-70. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81683-9
56. Hanahan, D., Weinberg, R. A. (2011) Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell 144(5):646-674. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.02.013
57. Dondossola, E., Crippa, L., Colombo, B., Ferrero, E., Corti, A. (2012) Chromogranin A regulates tumor self-seeding and dissemination. Cancer Res 72(2):449-459. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-11-2944
58. Ferrero, E., Scabini, S., Magni, E., Foglieni, C., Belloni, D., Colombo, B., Curnis, F., Villa, A., Ferrero, M. E., Corti, A. (2004) Chromogranin A protects vessels against tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced vascular leakage. FASEB J 18(3):554-556. doi:10.1096/fj.03-0922fje
59. Giovinazzo, F., Schimmack, S., Svejda, B., Alaimo, D., Pfragner, R., Modlin, I., et al. (2013) Chromogranin A and its fragments as regulators of small intestinal neuroendocrine neoplasm proliferation. PLoS One 8(11):e81111. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0081111
60. Nagakawa, O., Fujiuchi, Y., Fuse, H., Saiki, I. (2003) Differential effect of chromogranin A fragments on invasion and growth of prostate cancer cells in vitro. Urology 62(3):553-558. doi:10.1016/S0090-4295(03)00377-7
61. Bologna, M., Festuccia, C., Muzi, P., Biordi, L., Ciomei, M. (1989) Bombesin stimulates growth of human prostatic cancer cells in vitro. Cancer 63(9):1714-1720. doi:10.1002/1097-0142(19900501)63:9<1714::AID-CNCR2820630912>3.0.CO;2-H
62. Yang, J. C., Ok, J. H., Busby, J. E., Borowsky, A. D., Kung, H. J., Evans, C. P. (2009) Aberrant activation of androgen receptor in a new neuropeptide autocrine model of androgen-insensitive prostate cancer. Cancer Res 69(1):151-160. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-08-0442
63. Hobisch, A., Eder, I. E., Putz, T., Horninger, W., Bartsch, G., Klocker, H., et al. (1998) Interleukin-6 regulates prostate-specific protein expression in prostate carcinoma cells by activation of the androgen receptor. Cancer Res 58(20):4640-4645.
64. Mori, S., Murakami-Mori, K., Bonavida, B. (1999) Interleukin-6 induces G1 arrest through induction of p27(Kip1), a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, and neuron-like morphology in LNCaP prostate tumor cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 257(2):609-614. doi:10.1006/bbrc.1999.0515
65. Chen, T., Wang, L. H., Farrar, W. L. (2000) Interleukin 6 activates androgen receptor mediated gene expression through a signal transducer and activator of transcription 3- dependent pathway in LNCaP prostate cancer cells. Cancer Res 60(8):2132-2135.
66. Lou, W., Ni, Z., Dyer, K., Tweardy, D. J., Gao, A. C. (2000) Interleukin-6 induces prostate cancer cell growth accompanied by activation of Stat3 signaling pathway. Prostate 42(3):239-242. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0045(20000215)42:33.0.CO;2-G
67. Spiotto, M. T., Chung, T. D. (2000) STAT3 mediates IL-6-induced growth inhibition in the human prostate cancer cell line LNCaP. Prostate 42(2):88-98. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0045(20000201)42:2<88::AID-PROS2>3.0.CO;2-P
68. Spiotto, M. T., Chung, T. D. (2000) STAT3 mediates IL-6-induced neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate cancer cells. Prostate 42(3):186-195. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0045(20000215)42:3<186::AID-PROS4>3.0.CO;2-E
69. Giri, D., Ozen, M., Ittmann, M. (2001) Interleukin-6 is an autocrine growth factor in human prostate cancer. Am J Pathol 159(6):2159-2165. doi:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)63067-2
70. Ueda, T., Bruchovsky, N., Sadar, M. D. (2002) Activation of the androgen receptor N-terminal domain by interleukin-6 via MAPK and STAT3 signal transduction pathways. J Biol Chem 277(9):7076-7085. doi:10.1074/jbc.M108255200
71. Albrecht, M., Doroszewicz, J., Gillen, S., Gomes, I., Wilhelm, B., Stief, T., et al. (2004) Proliferation of prostate cancer cells and activity of neutral endopeptidase is regulated by bombesin and IL-1beta with IL-1beta acting as a modulator of cellular differentiation. Prostate 58(1):82-94. doi:10.1002/pros.10288
72. Lee, L. F., Louie, M. C., Desai, S. J., Yang, J., Chen, H. W., Evans, C. P., et al. (2004) Interleukin-8 confers androgen-independent growth and migration of LNCaP: differential effects of tyrosine kinases Src and FAK. Oncogene 23(12):2197-2205. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1207344
73. Huang, J., Yao, J. L., Zhang, L., Bourne, P. A., Quinn, A. M., di Sant'Agnese, P. A., et al. (2005) Differential expression of interleukin-8 and its receptors in the neuroendocrine and non-neuroendocrine compartments of prostate cancer. Am J Pathol 166(6):1807-1815. doi:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)62490-X
74. Singh, R. K., Lokeshwar, B. L. (2009) Depletion of intrinsic expression of interleukin-8 in prostate cancer cells causes cell cycle arrest, spontaneous apoptosis and increases the efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs. Mol Cancer 8:57. doi:10.1186/1476-4598-8-57
75. Delk, N. A., Farach-Carson, M. C. (2012) Interleukin-6: a bone marrow stromal cell paracrine signal that induces neuroendocrine differentiation and modulates autophagy in bone metastatic prostate cancer cells. Autophagy 8(4):650-663. doi:10.4161/auto.19226
76. Deng, X., Liu, H., Huang, J., Cheng, L., Keller, E. T., Parsons, et al. (2008) Ionizing radiation induces prostate cances neuroendocrine differentiation through interplay of CREB and ATF2: implications for disease progression. Cancer Res 68(23):9663-9670. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-08-2229
77. Bang, Y. J., Pirnia, F., Fang, W. G., Kang, W. K., Sartor, O., Whitesell, L., et al. (1994) Terminal neuroendocrine differentiation of human prostate carcinoma cells in response to increased intracellular cyclic AMP. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91(12):5330-5334. doi:10.1073/pnas.91.12.5330
78. Uysal-Onganer, P., Kawano, Y., Caro, M., Walker, M. M., Diez, S., Darrington, R. S., et al. (2010) Wnt-11 promotes neuroendocrine-like differentiation, survival and migration of prostate cancer cells. Mol Cancer 9:55. doi:10.1186/1476-4598-9-55
79. Wu, C., Huang, J. (2007) Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-AKT-mammalian target of rapamycin pathway is essential for neuroendocrine differentiation of prostate cancer. J Biol Chem 282(6):3571-3583. doi:10.1074/jbc.M608487200
80. Pernicová, Z., Slabákova, E., Fedr, R., Šimeckova, Š., Jaros, J., Suchánková, T., et al. (2014) The role of high cell density in the promotion of neuroendocrine transdifferentiation of prostate cancer cells. Mol Cancer 13(1):113. doi:10.1186/1476-4598-13-113
81. Jiborn, T., Bjartell, A., Abrahamsson, P. A. (1998) Neuroendocrine differentiation in prostatic carcinoma during hormonal treatment. Urology 51(4):585-589. doi:10.1016/S0090-4295(97)00684-5
82. Perlmutter, M. A., Lepor, H. (2007) Androgen deprivation therapy in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Rev Urol 9(Suppl 1):S3-S8.
83. Komiya, A., Suzuki, H., Imamoto, T., Kamiya, N., Nihei, N., Naya, Y., et al. (2009) Neuroendocrine differentiation in the progression of prostate cancer. Int J Urol 16(1):37-44. doi:10.1111/j.1442-2042.2008.02175.x
84. Sasaki, T., Komiya, A., Suzuki, H., Shimbo, M., Ueda, T., Akakura, K., et al. (2005) Changes in chromogranin A serum levels during endocrine therapy in metastatic prostate cancer patients. Eur Urol 48(2):224-229; Discussion 229-230. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2005.03.017
85. Sciarra, A., Monti, S., Gentile, V., Mariotti, G., Cardi, A., Voria, G., et al. (2003) Variation in chromogranin A serum levels during intermittent versus continuous androgen deprivation therapy for prostate adenocarcinoma. Prostate 55(3):168-179. doi:10.1002/pros.10222
86. Ishida, E., Nakamura, M., Shimada, K., Tasaki, M., Konishi, N. (2009) Immunohistochemical analysis of neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate cancer. Pathobiology 76(1):30-38. doi:10.1159/000178153
87. Small, E. J., Youngren, J., Alumkal, J., Evans, C., Ryan, C. J., Lara, P., et al. (2014) Small cell/neuroendocrine prostate cancer (NEPCa) in patients with metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) resistant to abiraterone or enzalutamide: preliminary results from the SU2C/PCF/AACR West Coast Prostate Cancer Dream Team. Poster session presented at the 2014 Congress of the European Society for Medical Oncology, Madrid, Spain.
88. Pruneri, G., Galli, S., Rossi, R. S., Roncalli, M., Coggi, G., Ferrari, A., et al. (1998) Chromogranin A and B and secretogranin II in prostatic adenocarcinomas: neuroendocrine expression in patients untreated and treated with androgen deprivation therapy. Prostate 34(2):113-120. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0045(19980201)34:2<113::AID-PROS5>3.0.CO;2-L
89. Bollito, E., Berruti, A., Bellina, M., Mosca, A., Leonardo, E., Tarabuzzi, R., et al. (2001) Relationship between neuroendocrine features and prognostic parameters in human prostate adenocarcinoma. Ann Oncol 12(Suppl 2):S159-S164.
90. Quek, M. L., Daneshmand, S., Rodrigo, S., Cai, J., Dorff, T. B., Groshen, S., et al. (2006) Prognostic significance of neuroendocrine expression in lymph node-positive prostate cancer. Urology 67(6):1247-1252. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2005.12.009
91. Ather, M. H., Abbas, F., Faruqui, N., Israr, M., Pervez, S. (2008) Correlation of three immunohistochemically detected markers of neuroendocrine differentiation with clinical predictors of disease progression in prostate cancer. BMC Urol 8:21. doi:10.1186/1471-2490-8-21
92. Krauss, D. J., Amin, M., Stone, B., Ye, H., Hayek, S., Cotant, M., Hafron, J., Brabbins, D. S. (2014) Chromogranin A staining as a prognostic variable in newly diagnosed Gleason score 7-10 prostate cancer treated with definitive radiotherapy. Prostate 74(5):520-527. doi:10.1002/pros.22771
93. Nelson, E. C., Cambio, A. J., Yang, J. C., Ok, J. H., Lara, P. N. Jr., Evans, C. P. (2007) Clinical implications of neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate cancer. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 10(1):6-14. doi:10.1038/sj.pcan.4500922
94. Frazier, S. R., Kaplan, P. A., Loy, T. S. (2007) The pathology of extrapulmonary small cell carcinoma. Semin Oncol 34(1):30-38. doi:10.1053/j.seminoncol.2006.11.017
95. Furtado, P., Lima, M. V. A., Nogueira, C., Franco, M., Tavora, F. (2011) Review of small cell carcinomas of the prostate. Prostate Cancer 2011:543272. doi: 10.1155/2011/543272
96. Früh, M., De Ruysscher, D., Popat, S., Crinò, L., Peters, S., Felip, E., et al. (2013) Small cell lung cancer (SCLC): ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol 24 Suppl 6:vi99-105. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdt178
97. Raina, V., Milroy, R., al-Dawoud, A., Dunlop, D., Soukop, M. (1992) Extrapulmonary small cell carcinoma of bone. Postgrad Med J 68(796):147-148. doi:10.1136/pgmj.68.796.147
98. Galanis, E., Frytak, S., Lloyd, R. V. (1997) Extrapulmonary small cell carcinoma. Cancer 79(9):1729-1736. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0142(19970501)79:9<1729::AID CNCR14>3.0.CO;2-#
99. Wong, Y. N., Jack, R. H., Mak, V., Henrik, M., Davies, E. A. (2009) The epidemiology and survival of extrapulmonary small cell carcinoma in South East England, 1970-2004. BMC Cancer 9:209. doi:10.1186/1471-2407-9-209
100. Hueser, C. N., Nguyen, N. C., Osman, M., Havlioglu, N., Patel, A. J. (2008) Extrapulmonary small cell carcinoma: involvement of the brain without evidence of extracranial malignancy by serial PET/CT scans. World J Surg Oncol 6:102. doi:10.1186/1477-7819-6-102
101. Adjei, A. A., Marks, R. S., Bonner, J. A. (1999) Current guidelines for the management of small cell lung cancer. Mayo Clin Proc 74(8):809-816. doi:10.4065/74.8.809
102. Kim, J. H., Lee, S. H., Park, J., Kim, H. Y., Lee, S. I., Nam, E. M., et al. (2004) Extrapulmonary small-cell carcinoma: a single-institution experience. Jpn J Clin Oncol 34(5):250-254. doi:10.1093/jjco/hyh052
103. Govindan, R., Page, N., Morgensztern, D., Read, W., Tierney, R., Vlahiotis, A., et al. (2006) Changing epidemiology of small-cell lung cancer in the United States over the last 30 years: analysis of the surveillance, epidemiologic, and end results database. J Clin Oncol 24(28):4539-4544. doi:10.1200/JCO.2005.04.4859
104. Haider, K., Shahid, R. K., Finch, D., Sami, A., Ahmad, I., Yadav, S., et al. (2006) Extrapulmonary small cell cancer: a Canadian province's experience. Cancer 107(9):2262-2269. doi:10.1002/cncr.22235
105. Chen, J., Macdonald, O. K., Gaffney, D. K. (2008) Incidence, mortality, and prognostic factors of small cell carcinoma of the cervix. Obstet Gynecol 111(6):1394-1402. doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e318173570b
106. Brennan, S. M., Gregory, D. L., Stillie, A., Herschtal, A., Mac Manus, M., Ball, D. L. (2010) Should extrapulmonary small cell cancer be managed like small cell lung cancer? Cancer 116(4):888-895. doi:10.1002/cncr.24858
107. Buzdar, A., Hunt, K., Buchholz, T. A., Taylor, S. H., Hortobagyi, G. N., Hess, K. R. (2010). Improving survival of patients with breast cancer over the past 6 decades: the University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center experience. Poster session presented at the 2010 Breast Cancer Symposium of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.
108. Siegel, R., Ma, J., Zou, Z., Jemal, A. (2014) Cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 64(1):9-29. doi:10.3322/caac.21208
109. Theodorescu, D., Broder, S. R., Boyd, J. C., Mills, S. E., Frierson, H. F. Jr. (1997) Cathepsin D and chromogranin A as predictors of long term disease specific survival after radical prostatectomy for localized carcinoma of the prostate. Cancer 80(11):2109-2119. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0142(19971201)80:11<2109::AID-CNCR10>3.0.CO;2-2
110. Kamiya, N., Suzuki, H., Kawamura, K., Imamoto, T., Naya, Y., Tochigi, N., et al. (2008) Neuroendocrine differentiation in stage D2 prostate cancers. Int J Urol 15(5):423-428. doi:10.1111/j.1442-2042.2008.02015.x
111. Kokubo, H., Yamada, Y., Nishio, Y., Fukatsu, H., Honda, N., Nakagawa, A., et al. (2005) Immunohistochemical study of chromogranin A in stage D2 prostate cancer. Urology 66(1):135-140. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2005.01.026
112. Berruti, A., Bollito, E., Cracco, C. M., Volante, M., Ciccone, G., Porpiglia, F., Papotti, M., Scarpa, R. M., Dogliotti, L. (2010) The prognostic role of immunohistochemical chromogranin A expression in prostate cancer patients is significantly modified by androgen-deprivation therapy. Prostate 70(7):718-726. doi:10.1002/pros.21104
113. Komiya, A., Yasuda, K., Watanabe, A., Fujiuchi, Y., Tsuzuki, T., Fuse, H. (2013b) The prognostic significance of loss of the androgen receptor and neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate biopsy specimens among castration-resistant prostate cancer patients. Mol Clin Oncol 1(2):257-262. doi:10.3892/mco.2013.69
114. Berruti, A., Mosca, A., Porpiglia, F., Bollito, E., Tucci, M., Vana, F., Cracco, C., Torta, M., Russo, L., Cappia, S., Saini, A., Angeli, A., Papotti, M., Scarpa, R. M., Dogliotti, L. (2007) Chromogranin A expression in patients with hormone naïve prostate cancer predicts the development of hormone refractory disease. J Urol 178(3 Pt 1):838-843. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2007.05.018
115. Raines, D., Chester, M., Diebold, A. E., Mamikunian, P., Anthony, C. T., Mamikunian, G., et al. (2012) A prospective evaluation of the effect of chronic proton pump inhibitor use on plasma biomarker levels in humans. Pancreas 41(4):508-511. doi:10.1097/MPA.0b013e318243a0b6
116. Ranno, S., Motta, M., Rampello, E., Risino, C., Bennati, E., Malaguarnera, M. (2006) The chromogranin-A (CgA) in prostate cancer. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 43(1):117-126. doi:10.1016/j.archger.2005.09.008
117. Berruti, A., Mosca, A., Tucci, M., Terrone, C., Torta, M., Tarabuzzi, R., et al. (2005) Independent prognostic role of circulating chromogranin A in prostate cancer patients with hormone-refractory disease. Endocr Relat Cancer 12(1):109-117. doi:10.1677/erc.1.00876
118. Taplin, M. E., George, D. J., Halabi, S., Sanford, B., Febbo, P. G., Hennessy, K. T., et al. (2005) Prognostic significance of plasma chromogranin A levels in patients with hormone-refractory prostate cancer treated in Cancer and Leukemia Group B 9480 study. Urology 66(2):386-391. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2005.03.040
119. Isshiki, S., Akakura, K., Komiya, S., Suzuki, H., Kamiya, N., Ito, H. (2002) Chromogranin A concentration as a serum marker to predict prognosis after endocrine therapy for prostate cancer. J Urol 167(2 Pt 1):512-515. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(01)69075-X
120. Hvamstad, T., Jordal, A., Hekmat, N., Paus, E., Fosså, S. D. (2003) Neuroendocrine serum tumour markers in hormone-resistant prostate cancer. Eur Urol 44(2):215-221. doi:10.1016/S0302-2838(03)00257-4
121. Puccetti, L., Supuran, C. T., Fasolo, P. P., Conti, E., Sebastiani, G., Lacquaniti, S., et al. (2005) Skewing towards neuroendocrine phenotype in high grade or high stage androgen-responsive primary prostate cancer. Eur Urol 48(2):215-221; Discussion 221-223. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2005.03.018
122. Ahlgren, G., Pedersen, K., Lundberg, S., Aus, G., Hugosson, J., Abrahamsson, P. A. (2000) Neuroendocrine differentiation is not prognostic of failure after radical prostatectomy but correlates with tumor volume. Urology 56(6):1011-1015. doi:10.1016/S0090-4295(00)00838-4
123. Zhang, C., Soori, M., Miles, F. L., Sikes, R. A., Carson, D. D., Chung, L. W., et al. (2011) Paracrine factors produced by bone marrow stromal cells induce apoptosis and neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate cancer cells. Prostate 71(2):157-167. doi:10.1002/pros.21231
124. Ni, Z., Lou, W., Leman, E. S., Gao, A. C. (2000) Inhibition of constitutively activated Stat3 signaling pathway suppresses growth of prostate cancer cells. Cancer Res 60(5):1225-1228.
125. Gao, L., Zhang, L., Hu, J., Li, F., Shao, Y., Zhao, D., et al. (2005) Down-regulation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 expression using vector-based small interfering RNAs suppresses growth of human prostate tumor in vivo. Clin Cancer Res 11(17):6333-6341. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-05-0148
126. Ayala, G. E., Dai, H., Ittmann, M., Li, R., Powell, M., Frolov, A., et al. (2004) Growth and survival mechanisms associated with perineural invasion in prostate cancer. Cancer Res 64(17):6082-6090. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-0838
127. Ayala, G. E., Wheeler, T. M., Shine, H. D., Schmelz, M., Frolov, A., Chakraborty, S., et al. (2001) In vitro dorsal root ganglia and human prostate cell line interaction: redefining perineural invasion in prostate cancer. Prostate 49(3):213-223. doi:10.1002/pros.1137
128. Ayala, G. E., Dai, H., Powell, M., Li, R., Ding, Y., Wheeler, T. M., et al. (2008) Cancer-related axonogenesis and neurogenesis in prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 14(23):7593-7603. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-08-1164
129. Bartoletti, R., Gavazzi, A., Cai, T., Mondaini, N., Morelli, A., Del Popolo, G., et al. (2009) Prostate growth and prevalence of prostate diseases in early onset spinal cord injuries. Eur Urol 56(1):142-148. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2008.01.088
130. Patel, N., Ngo, K., Hastings, J., Ketchum, N., Sepahpanah, F. (2011) Prevalence of prostate cancer in patients with chronic spinal cord injury. PM R 3(7):633-636. doi:10.1016/j.pmrj.2011.04.024
131. Lee, W. Y., Sun, L. M., Liang, J. A., Chang, Y. J., Sung, F. C., Kao, C. H. (2014) Risk of prostate and bladder cancers in patients with spinal cord injury: a population-based cohort study. Urol Oncol 32(1):51.e1-e7. doi:10.1016/j.urolonc.2013.07.019
132. Frisbie, J. H., Kumar, S., Aguilera, E. J., Yalla, S. (2006) Prostate atrophy and spinal cord lesions. Spinal Cord 44(1):24-27. doi:10.1038/sj.sc.3101804
133. Biki, B., Mascha, E., Moriarty, D. C., Fitzpatrick, J. M., Sessler, D. I., Buggy, D. J. (2008) Anesthetic technique for radical prostatectomy surgery affects cancer recurrence: a retrospective analysis. Anesthesiology 109(2):180-187. doi:10.1097/ALN.0b013e31817f5b73
134. Scavonetto, F., Yeoh, T. Y., Umbreit, E. C., Weingarten, T. N., Gettman, M. T., Frank, I., et al. (2014) Association between neuraxial analgesia, cancer progression, and mortality after radical prostatectomy: a large, retrospective matched cohort study. Br J Anaesth 113 Suppl 1:i95-i102. doi:10.1093/bja/aet467
135. Mao, L., Lin, S., Lin, J. (2013) The effects of anesthetics on tumor progression. Int J Physiol Pathophysiol Pharmacol 5(1):1-10.
136. Johansson, S., Rydqvist, B., Swerup, C., Heilbronn, E., Århem, P. (1989) Action potentials of cultured human oat cells: whole-cell measurements with the patch-clamp technique. Acta Physiol Scand 135(4):573-578. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1989.tb08619.x
137. Blandino, J. K., Viglione, M. P., Bradley, W. A., Oie, H. K., Kim, Y. I. (1995) Voltage-dependent sodium channels in human small-cell lung cancer cells: role in action potentials and inhibition by Lambert-Eaton syndrome IgG. J Membr Biol 143(2):153-163. doi:10.1007/BF00234661
138. Anderson, J. D., Hansen, T. P., Lenkowski, P. W., Walls, A. M., Choudhury, I. M., Schenck, H. A., et al. (2003) Voltage-gated sodium channel blockers as cytostatic inhibitors of the androgen-independent prostate cancer cell line PC-3. Mol Cancer Ther 2(11):1149-1154.
139. Schulman, J. M., Strichartz, G. R. (2012) "Local anesthetic pharmacology", in Principles of Pharmacology: The Pathophysiologic Basis of Drug Therapy (3rd ed.), ed. D. E. Golan, A. H. Tashjian Jr., E. H. Armstrong, A. W. Armstrong (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins), 147-162.
140. Karsenty, G., Rocha, J., Chevalier, S., Scarlata, E., Andrieu, C., Zouanat, F. Z., Rocchi, P., Giusiano, S., Elzayat, E. A., Corcos, J. (2009) Botulinum toxin type A inhibits the growth of LNCaP human prostate cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Prostate 69(11):1143-1150. doi:10.1002/pros.20958
141. Melamed, R., Bar-Yosef, S., Shakhar, G., Shakhar, K., Ben-Eliyahu, S. (2003) Suppression of natural killer cell activity and promotion of tumor metastasis by ketamine, thiopental, and halothane, but not by propofol: mediating mechanisms and prophylactic measures. Anesth Analg 97(5):1331-1339. doi:10.1213/01.ANE.0000082995.44040.07
142. Wuethrich, P. Y., Hsu Schmitz, S. F., Kessler, T. M., Thalmann, G. N., Studer, U. E., Stueber, F., et al. (2010) Potential influence of the anesthetic technique used during open radical prostatectomy on prostate cancer-related outcome: a retrospective study. Anesthesiology 113(3):570-576. doi:10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181e4f6ec
143. Gupta, A., Björnsson, A., Fredriksson, M., Hallböök, O., Eintrei, C. (2011) Reduction in mortality after epidural anaesthesia and analgesia in patients undergoing rectal but nor colonic cancer surgery: a retrospective analysis of data from 655 patients in Central Sweden. Br J Anaesth 107(2):164-170. doi:10.1093/bja/aer100
144. Sprung, J., Scavonetto, F., Yeoh, T. Y., Kramer, J. M., Karnes, R. J., Eisenach, J. H., et al. (2014) Outcomes after radical prostatectomy for cancer: a comparison between GA and epidural anesthesia with fentanyl analgesia: a matched cohort study. Anesth Analg 119(4):859-866. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000000320
145. Forget, P., Tombal, B., Scholtès, J. L., Nzimbala, J., Meulders, C., Legrand, C., et al. (2011) Do intraoperative analgesics influence oncological outcomes after radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer? Eur J Anaesthesiol 28(12):830-835. doi:10.1097/EJA.0b013e32834b7d9a
146. Myles, P. S., Peyton, P., Silbert, B., Hunt, J., Rigg, J. R., Sessler, D. I., et al. (2011) Perioperative epidural analgesia for major abdominal surgery for cancer and recurrence free survival: randomised trial. BMJ 342:d1491. doi:10.1136/bmj.d1491
147. Wuethrich, P. Y., Thalmann, G. N., Studer, U. E., Burkhard, F. C. (2013) Epidural analgesia during open radical prostatectomy does not improve long-term cancer-related outcome: a retrospective study in patients with advanced prostate cancer. PLoS One 8(8):e72873. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0072873
148. Roiss, M., Schiffmann, J., Tennstedt, P., Kessler, T., Blanc, I., Goetz, A., et al. (2014) Oncological long-term outcome of 4772 patients with prostate cancer undergoing radical prostatectomy: Does the anaesthetic technique matter? Eur J Surg Oncol (in press). doi:10.1016/j.ejso.2014.02.223
149. Ismail, H., Ho, K. M., Narayan, K., Kondalsamy-Chennakesavan, S. (2010) Effect of neuraxial anaesthesia on tumour progression in cervical cancer patients treated with brachytherapy: a retrospective cohort study. Br J Anaesth 105(2):145-149. doi:10.1093/bja/aeq156
150. Cummings, K. C. 3rd, Xu, F., Cummings, L. C., Cooper, G. S. (2012) A comparison of epidural analgesia and traditional pain management effects on survival and cancer recurrence after colectomy: a population-based study. Anesthesiology 116(4):797-806. doi:10.1097/ALN.0b013e31824674f6
151. Tseng, K. S., Kulkarni, S., Humphreys, E. B., Carter, H. B., Mostwin, J. L., Partin, A. W., et al. (2014) Spinal anesthesia does not impact prostate cancer recurrence in a cohort of men undergoing radical prostatectomy: an observational study. Reg Anesth Pain Med 39(4):284-288. doi:10.1097/AAP.0000000000000108
152. Evans, C., Dalgleish, A. G., Kumar, D. (2006) Review article: immune suppression and colorectal cancer. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 24(8):1163-1177. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.03075.x
153. Tabellini, G., Borsani, E., Benassi, M., Patrizi, O., Ricotta, D., Caimi, L., et al. (2014) Effects of opioid therapy on human natural killer cells. Int Immunopharmacol 18(1):169-174. doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2013.11.015
154. Gach, K., Wyrebska, A., Fichna, J., Janecka, A. (2011) The role of morphine in regulation of cancer cell growth. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 384(3):221-230. doi:10.1007/s00210-011-0672-4
155. Exadaktylos, A. K., Buggy, D. J., Moriarty, D. C., Mascha, E., Sessler, D. I. (2006) Can anesthetic technique for primary breast cancer surgery affect recurrence or metastasis? Anesthesiology 105(4):660-664.
156. Lai, R., Peng, Z., Chen, D., Wang, X., Xing, W., Zeng, W., et al. (2012) The effects of anesthetic technique on cancer recurrence in percutaneous radiofrequency ablation of small hepatocellular carcinoma. Anesth Analg 114(2):290-296. doi:10.1213/ANE.0b013e318239c2e3
157. Lin, L., Liu, C., Tan, H., Ouyang, H., Zhang, Y., Zeng, W. (2011) Anaesthetic technique may affect prognosis for ovarian serous adenocarcinoma: a retrospective analysis. Br J Anaesth 106(6):814-822. doi:10.1093/bja/aer055
158. Schlagenhauff, B., Ellwanger, U., Breuninger, H., Stroebel, W., Rassner, G., Garbe, C. (2000) Prognostic impact of the type of anaesthesia used during the excision of primary cutaneous melanoma. Melanoma Res 10(2):165-169. doi:10.1097/00008390-200010020-00009
159. Chen, W. K., Miao, C. H. (2013) The effect of anesthetic technique on survival in human cancers: a meta-analysis of retrospective and prospective studies. PLoS One 8(2):e56540. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0056540
160. Gajewski, T. F., Schreiber, H., Fu, Y. X. (2013) Innate and adaptive immune cells in the tumor microenvironment. Nat Immunol 14(10):1014-1022. doi:10.1038/ni.2703
161. Solito, S., Marigo, I., Pinton, L., Damuzzo, V., Mandruzzato, S., Bronte, V. (2014) Myeloid-derived suppressor cell heterogeneity in human cancers. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1319:47-65. doi:10.1111/nyas.12469
162. Brusa, D., Simone, M., Gontero, P., Spadi, R., Racca, P., Micari, J., et al. (2013) Circulating immunosuppressive cells of prostate cancer patients before and after radical prostatectomy: profile comparison. Int J Urol 20(10):971-978. doi:10.1111/iju.12086
163. Conrick-Martin, I., Kell, M. R., Buggy, D. J. (2012) Meta-analysis of the effect of central neuraxial regional anesthesia compared with GA on postoperative natural killer T lymphocyte function. J Clin Anesth 24(1):3-7. doi:10.1016/j.jclinane.2011.09.001
164. Mortensen, P. B. (1989) The incidence of cancer in schizophrenic patients. J Epidemiol Community Health 43(1):43-47. doi:10.1136/jech.43.1.43
165. Mortensen, P. B. (1994) The occurrence of cancer in first admitted schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Res 12(3):185-194.
166. Barak, Y., Achiron, A., Mandel, M., Mirecki, I., Aizenberg, D. (2005) Reduced cancer incidence among patients with schizophrenia. Cancer 104(12):2817-2821. doi:10.1002/cncr.21574
167. Dalton, S. O., Mellemkjaer, L., Thomassen, L., Mortensen, P. B., Johansen, C. (2005) Risk for cancer in a cohort of patients hospitalized for schizophrenia in Denmark, 1969-1993. Schizophr Res 75(2-3):315-324. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2004.11.009
168. Chou, F. H., Tsai, K. Y., Su, C. Y., Lee, C. C. (2011) The incidence and relative risk factors for developing cancer among patients with schizophrenia: a nine-year follow-up study. Schizophr Res 129(2-3):97-103. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2011.02.018
169. Ji, J., Sundquist, K., Ning, Y., Kendler, K. S., Sundquist, J., Chen, X. (2013) Incidence of cancer in patients with schizophrenia and their first-degree relatives: a population-based study in Sweden. Schizophr Bull 39(3):527-536. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs065
170. Lin, C. Y., Lane, H. Y., Chen, T. T., Wu, Y. H., Wu, C. Y., Wu, V. Y. (2013) Inverse association between cancer risks and age in schizophrenic patients: a 12-year nationwide cohort study. Cancer Sci 104(3):383-390. doi:10.1111/cas.12094
171. Lichtermann, D., Ekelund, J., Pukkala, E., Tanskanen, A., Lönnqvist, J. (2001) Incidence of cancer among persons with schizophrenia and their relatives. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58(6):573-578. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.58.6.573
172. Goldacre, M. J., Kurina, L. M., Wotton, C. J., Yeates, D., Seagroat, V. (2005) Schizophrenia and cancer: an epidemiological study. Br J Psychiatry 187:334-338. doi:10.1192/bjp.187.4.334
173. Raviv, G., Laufer, M., Baruch, Y., Barak, Y. (2014) Risk of prostate cancer in patients with schizophrenia. Compr Psychiatry 55(7):1639-1642. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.05.007
174. Mortensen, P B. (1992) Neuroleptic medication and reduced risk of prostate cancer in schizophrenic patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand 85(5):390-393. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1992.tb10325.x
175. Dalton, S. O., Johansen, C., Poulsen, A. H., Nørgaard, M., Sørensen, H. T., McLaughlin, J. K., et al. (2006) Cancer risk among users of neuroleptic medication: a population-based cohort study. Br J Cancer 95(7):934-939. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6603259
176. Standaert, D. G., Walsh, R. R. (2012) "Pharmacology of dopaminergic neurotransmission", in Principles of Pharmacology: The Pathophysiologic Basis of Drug Therapy (3rd ed.), ed. D. E. Golan, A. H. Tashjian Jr., E. H. Armstrong, A. W. Armstrong (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins), 186-206.
177. Ibáñez, K., Boullosa, C., Tabarés-Seisdedos, R., Baudot, A., Valencia, A. (2014) Molecular evidence for the inverse comorbidity between CNS disorders and cancer detected by transcriptomic meta-analyses. PLoS Genet 10(2):e1004173. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004173
178. Dalton, S. O., Laursen, T. M., Mellemkjaer, L., Johansen, C., Mortensen, P. B. (2004) Risk for cancer in parents of patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 161(5):903-908. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.5.1024
179. Yeh, C. T., Wu, A. T., Chang, P. M., Chen, K. Y., Yang, C. N., Yang, S. C., et al. (2012) Trifluoperazine, an antipsychotic agent, inhibits cancer stem cell growth and overcomes drug resistance of lung cancer. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 186(11):1180-1188. doi:10.1164/rccm.201207-1180OC
180. Sachlos, E., Risueño, R. M., Laronde, S., Shapovalova, Z., Lee, J. H., Russell, J., et al. (2012) Identification of drugs including a dopamine receptor antagonist that selectively target cancer stem cells. Cell 149(6):1284-1297. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.03.049
181. Seeman, P. (2002) Atypical antipsychotics: mechanism of action. Can J Psychiatry 47(1):27-38.
182. Conner, M. W., Dorian-Conner, C., Green, L. C., Armstrong, S. R., Taniguchi, C., Tashjian, A. H., Jr., et al. (2012) "Drug toxicity", in Principles of Pharmacology: The Pathophysiologic Basis of Drug Therapy (3rd ed.), ed. D. E. Golan, A. H. Tashjian Jr., E. H. Armstrong, A. W. Armstrong (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins), 56-70.
183. Maes, M., Bosmans, E., Calabrese, J., Smith, R., Meltzer, H. Y. (1995) Interleukin-2 and interleukin-6 in schizophrenia and mania: effects of neuroleptics and mood stabilizers. J Psychiatr Res 29(2):141-152. doi:10.1016/0022-3956(94)00049-W
184. Kim, Y. K., Mynt, A. M., Verkerk, R., Scharpe, S., Steinbusch, H., Leonard, B. (2009) Cytokine changes and tryptophan metabolites in medication-naïve and medication-free schizophrenic patients. Neuropsychobiology 59(2):123-129. doi:10.1159/000213565
185. Zakharyan, R., Petrek, M., Arakelyan, A., Mrazek, F., Atshemyan, S., Boyajyan, A. (2012) Interleukin-6 promoter polymorphism and plasma levels in patients with schizophrenia. Tissue Antigens 80(2):136-142. doi:10.1111/j.1399-0039.2012.01886.x
186. Kalmady, S. V., Venkatasubramanian, G., Shivakumar, V., Gautham, S., Subramaniam, A., Jose, D. A., et al. (2014) Relationship between interleukin-6 gene polymorphism and hippocampal volume in antipsychotic-naïve schizophrenia: evidence for differential susceptibility? PLoS One 9(5):e96021. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096021
187. Lin, C. C., Chang, C. M., Chang, P. Y., Huang, T. L. (2011) Increased interleukin-6 level in Taiwanese schizophrenic patients. Chang Gung Med J 34(4):375-381.
188. Schmitt, A., Bertsch, T., Tost, H., Bergmann, A., Henning, U., Klimke, A., et al. (2005) Increased serum interleukin-1beta and interleukin-6 in elderly, chronic schizophrenic patients on stable antipsychotic medication. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 1(2):171-177. doi:10.2147/nedt.1.2.171.61048
189. Marsland, A. L., Gianaros, P. J., Abramowitch, S. M., Manuck, S. B., Hariri, A. R. (2008) Interleukin-6 covaries inversely with hippocampal grey matter volume in middle aged adults. Biol Psychiatry 64(6):484-490. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.04.016
190. Tamminga, C. A., Stan, A. D., Wagner, A. D. (2010) The hippocampal formation in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 167(10):1178-1193. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09081187
191. Paul-Samojedny, M., Owczarek, A., Kowalczyk, M., Suchanek, R., Palacz, M., Kucia, K., Fila-Danilow, A., Borkowska, P., Kowalski, J. (2013) Association of interleukin 2 (IL- 2), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and TNF-alpha (TNFa) gene polymorphisms with paranoid schizophrenia in a Polish population. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 25(1):72-82. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.12020021
192. Behrens, M. M., Ali, S. S., Dugan, L. L. (2008) Interleukin-6 mediates the increase in NADPH-oxidase in the ketamine model of schizophrenia. J Neurosci 28(51):13957-13966. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4457-08.2008
193. Iyengar, B., Singh, A. V. (2010) Patterns of neural differentiation in melanomas. J Biomed Sci 17:87. doi:10.1186/1423-0127-17-87
194. Su, A., Dry, S. M., Binder, S. W., Said, J., Shintaku, P., Sarantopoulos, G. P. (2014) Malignant melanoma with neural differentiation: an exceptional case report and brief review of the pertinent literature. Am J Dermatopathol 36(1):e5-e9. doi:10.1097/DAD.0b013e31828cf90a
195. Neman, J., Termini, J., Wilczynski, S., Vaidehi, N., Choy, C., Kowolik, C. M., et al. (2014) Human breast cancer metastases to the brain display GABA-ergic properties in the neural niche. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111(3):984-989. doi:10.1073/pnas.1322098111
196. Watson, C. J., Khaled, W. T. (2008) Mammary development in the embryo and adult: a journey of morphogenesis and commitment. Development 135(6):995-1003. doi:10.1242/dev.005439
197. Zänker, K. S., Entschladen, F. (eds.) (2007) Neuronal Activity in Tumor Tissue. In Prog Exp Tum Res Basel: Karger, vol. 39.
198. Ayala, G. E., Dai, H., Tahir, S. A., Li, R., Timme, T., Ittmann, M., et al. (2006) Stromal antiapoptotic paracrine loop in perineural invasion of prostatic carcinoma. Cancer Res 66(10):5159-5164. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-05-1847
199. Magnon, C., Hall, S. J., Lin, J., Xue, X., Gerber, L., Freedland, S. J., et al. (2013) Autonomic nerve development contributes to prostate cancer progression. Science 341(6142):1236361. doi:10.1126/science.1236361
200. Olar, A., He, D., Florentin, D., Ding, Y., Ayala, G. (2014) Biologic correlates and significance of axonogenesis in prostate cancer. Hum Pathol 45(7):1358-1364. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2014.02.009
201. Scott, P. A. Sr., Perkash, I., Mode, D., Wolfe, V. A., Terris, M. K. (2004) Prostate cancer diagnosed in spinal cord-injured patients is more commonly advanced stage than in able-bodied patients. Urology 63(3):509-512. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2003.10.022