Cytokine changes and tryptophan metabolites in medication-naïve and medication-free schizophrenic patients

Neuropsychobiology

Volumn 59, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 123-129

  Kim, Yong Ku ^a,d   Myint, Aye Mu ^b,c   Verkerk, Robert ^b   Scharpe, Simon ^b   Steinbusch, Harry ^c   Leonard, Brian ^c  

^a Korea University College of Medicine   (South Korea)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ANTWERP   (Belgium)

^c MAASTRICHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^d Korea University College of Medicine   (South Korea)

Author keywords

Cytokine; Inflammatory response; Schizophrenia; Tryptophan; Tryptophan breakdown

Indexed keywords

AMISULPRIDE; ARIPIPRAZOLE; CYTOKINE; GAMMA INTERFERON; INTERLEUKIN 2; INTERLEUKIN 4; INTERLEUKIN 6; KYNURENINE; OLANZAPINE; RISPERIDONE; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA1; TRYPTOPHAN; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; AMINO ACID BLOOD LEVEL; ARTICLE; COMPARATIVE STUDY; CONTROLLED STUDY; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; FEMALE; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; SCHIZOPHRENIA; TH1 CELL; TH2 CELL; TRYPTOPHAN METABOLISM;

ADULT; ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENTS; CYTOKINES; FEMALE; HUMANS; KYNURENINE; MALE; SCHIZOPHRENIA; TIME FACTORS; TRYPTOPHAN;

EID: 65449120384     PISSN: 0302282X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000213565     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. Bender DA: Tryptophan and serotonin in schizophrenia. Lancet 1976;ii:427.
2. Bender DA: Tryptophan and serotonin in schizophrenia. Lancet 1976;ii:427.
3. Faurbye A: The role of amines in the etiology of schizophrenia. Compr Psychiatry 1968; 9: 155-177.
4. Golightly KL, Lloyd JA, Hobson JE, Gallagher P, Mercer G, Young AH: Acute tryptophan depletion in schizophrenia. Psychol Med 2001; 31: 75-84.
5. Jospeh MH, Baker HF, Crow TJ, Riley GJ, Risby D: Brain tryptophan metabolism in schizophrenia: a post mortem study of metabolites of the serotonin and kynurenine pathways in schizophrenic and control subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1979; 62: 279-285.
6. Levkovitz Y, Ophir-Shaham O, Bloch Y, Treves I, Fennig S, Grauer E: Effect of L -tryptophan on memory in patients with schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis 2003; 191: 568-573.
7. Puzynski S, Jakomow B: Disturbances in tryptophan and serotonin metabolism in affective psychoses and schizophrenia. Pol J Pharmacol Pharm 1975; 27(suppl):47-60.
8. Rao ML, Gross G, Strebel B, Halaris A, Huber G, Braunig P, et al: Circadian rhythm of tryptophan, serotonin, melatonin, and pituitary hormones in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 1994; 35: 151-163.
9. Stewart BM: Biochemical aspects of schizophrenia. Am J Nurs 1975; 75: 2176-2179.
10. Whitaker-Azmitia PM, Borella A, Raio N: Serotonin depletion in the adult rat causes loss of the dendritic marker MAP-2. A new animal model of schizophrenia? Neuropsychopharmacology 1995; 12: 269-272.
11. Hayaishi O: Biochemical and Medical Aspects of Tryptophan Metabolism. Amsterdam, Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical Press, 1980.
12. Heyes MP, Saito K, Major EO, Milstien S, Markey SP, Vickers JH: A mechanism of quinolinic acid formation by brain in inflammatory neurological disease. Attenuation of synthesis from L -tryptophan by 6- chlorotryptophan and 4-chloro-3-hydroxyanthranilate. Brain 1993; 116: 1425-1450.
13. Mellor AL, Munn DH: Tryptophan catabolism and T-cell tolerance: immunosuppression by starvation? Immunol Today 1999; 20: 469-473.
14. Hayaishi O: Properties and function of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase. J Biochem (Tokyo) 1976; 79: 13P-21P.
15. Miller CL, Llenos IC, Dulay JR, Barillo MM, Yolken RH, Weis S: Expression of the kynurenine pathway enzyme tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase is increased in the frontal cortex of individuals with schizophrenia. Neurobiol Dis 2004; 15: 618-629.
16. Saito K, Ohta Y, Nagamura Y, Sasaki E, Ishiguro I: Relationship between L -tryptophan uptake and L -tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase activity in rat hepatocytes. Biochem Int 1990; 20: 71-80.
17. Satyanarayana U, Rao BS: Dietary tryptophan level and the enzymes of tryptophan NAD pathway. Br J Nutr 1980; 43: 107-113.
18. Smith SA, Carr FP, Pogson CI: The metabolism of L -tryptophan by isolated rat liver cells. Quantification of the relative importance of, and the effect of nutritional status on, the individual pathways of tryptophan metabolism. Biochem J 1980; 192: 673-686. Cytokines, Tryptophan Breakdown and Schizophrenia Neuropsychobiology 2009;59:123-129 129
19. Salter M, Pogson CI: The role of tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase in the hormonal control of tryptophan metabolism in isolated rat liver cells. Effects of glucocorticoids and experimental diabetes. Biochem J 1985; 229: 499- 504.
20. Carlin JM, Borden EC, Sondel PM, Byrne GI: Biologic-response-modifier- induced indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity in human peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures. J Immunol 1987; 139: 2414-2418.
21. Carlin JM, Borden EC, Sondel PM, Byrne GI:Interferon-induced indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity in human mononuclear phagocytes. J Leukoc Biol 1989; 45: 29-34.
22. Hu B, Hissong BD, Carlin JM: Interleukin-1 enhances indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity by increasing specific mRNA expressionin human mononuclear phagocytes. J Interferon Cytokine Res 1995; 15: 617-624.
23. Taylor MW, Feng GS: Relationship between interferon-gamma, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, and tryptophan catabolism. FASEB J 1991; 5: 2516-2522.
24. Yasui H, Takai K, Yoshida R, Hayaishi O: Interferon enhances tryptophan metabolism by inducing pulmonary indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase: its possible occurrence in cancer patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986; 83: 6622-6626.
25. Musso T, Gusella GL, Brooks A, Longo DL, Varesio L: Interleukin-4 inhibits indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase expression in human monocytes. Blood 1994; 83: 1408-1411.
26. Schwarz MJ, Chiang S, Muller N, Ackenheil M: T-helper-1 and T-helper-2 responses in psychiatric disorders. Brain Behav Immun 2001; 15: 340-370.
27. Schwarz MJ, Muller N, Riedel M, Ackenheil M: The Th2-hypothesis of schizophrenia: a strategy to identify a subgroup of schizophrenia caused by immune mechanisms. Med Hypotheses 2001; 56: 483-486.
28. Avgustin B, Wraber B, Tavcar R: Increased Th1 and Th2 immune reactivity with relative Th2 dominance in patients with acute exacerbation of schizophrenia. Croat Med J 2005; 46: 268-274.
29. Kim YK, Myint AM, Lee BH, Han CS, Lee HJ, Kim DJ, et al: Th1, Th2 and Th3 cytokine alteration in schizophrenia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2004; 28: 1129-1134.
30. Pae CU, Yoon CH, Kim TS, Kim JJ, Park SH, Lee CU, et al: Antipsychotic treatment may alter T-helper (TH) 2 arm cytokines. Int Immunopharmacol 2006; 6: 666-671.
31. Szuster-Ciesielska A, Slotwinska M, Stachura A, Marmurowska-Michalowska H, Kandefer- Szerszen M: Neuroleptics modulate cytokine and reactive oxygen species production in blood leukocytes of healthy volunteers. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2004; 52: 59-67.
32. Rothermundt M, Arolt V, Leadbeater J, Peters M, Rudolf S, Kirchner H: Cytokine production in unmedicated and treated schizophrenic patients. Neuroreport 2000; 11: 3385-3388.
33. Gilmour DG, Manowitz P, Frosch WA, Shopsin B: Association of plasma tryptophan levels with clinical change in female schizophrenic patients. Biol Psychiatry 1973; 6: 119-128.
34. Manowitz P, Gilmour DG, Racevskis J: Low plasma tryptophan levels in recently hospitalized schizophrenics. Biol Psychiatry 1973; 6: 109-118.
35. American Psychiatric Press: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, ed 4. Washington, American Psychiatric Press, 1994.
36. First M, Spitzer RL, Gibbon M, William JB: Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorder - Patient Edition (SCID-I/P, Version 2.0). New York, Biometrics Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1998.
37. Kay SR, Fiszbein A, Opler LA: The positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1987; 13: 261-276.
38. Kim YK, Won SD, Lee KM, Choi HS, Jang HS, Lee BH, Han CS: A study on the reliability and validity of the Korean version of the Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia (K-CDSS). J Korean Neuropsychiatr Assoc 2005; 44: 446-45 5.
39. Cooper JD, Turnell DC, Green B, Verillon F: Automated sequential trace enrichment of dialysates and robotics. A technique for the preparation of biological samples prior to high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr 1988; 456: 53-69.
40. Hervé C, Beyne P, Jamault H, Delacoux E: Determination of tryptophan and its kynurenine pathway metabolites in human serum by high-performance liquid chromatography with simultaneous ultraviolet and fluorimetric detection. J Chromatogr B Biomed Appl 1996; 675: 157-161.
41. Maes M, Bosmans E, Kenis G, De Jong R, Smith RS, Meltzer HY: In vivo immunomodulatory effects of clozapine in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1997; 26: 221-225.
42. Monteleone P, Fabrazzo M, Tortorella A, Maj M: Plasma levels of interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha in chronic schizophrenia: effects of clozapine treatment. Psychiatry Res 1997; 71: 11-17.
43. Muller N, Empl M, Riedel M, Schwarz M, Ackenheil M: Neuroleptic treatment increases soluble IL-2 receptors and decreases soluble IL-6 receptors in schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997; 247: 308-313.
44. Pollmacher T, Fenzel T, Mullington J, Hinze-Selch D: The influence of clozapine treatment on plasma granulocyte colony-stimulating (G-CSF) levels. Pharmacopsychiatry 1997; 30: 118-121.
45. Hinze-Selch D, Becker EW, Stein GM, Berg PA, Mullington J, Holsboer F, et al: Effects of clozapine on in vitro immune parameters: a longitudinal study in clozapine-treated schizophrenic patients. Neuropsychopharmacology 1998; 19: 114-122.
46. Cazzullo CL, Sacchetti E, Galluzzo A, Panariello A, Adorni A, Pegoraro M, et al: Cytokine profiles in schizophrenic patients treated with risperidone: a 3-month follow-up study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2002; 26: 33-39.
47. Pollock A, McLaren EH: Serum prolactin concentration in patients taking neuroleptic drugs. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1998; 49: 513- 516.
48. Haddad PM, Sharma SG: Adverse effects of atypical antipsychotics: differential risk and clinical implications. CNS Drugs 2007; 21: 911-936.
49. Holzer L, Eap CB: Risperidone-induced symptomatic hyperprolactinaemia in adolescents. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2006; 26: 167-171.
50. Alves J, Falcao J, Martins JM, Saraiva MC, Godinho C, Arranhado E, et al: Immunoglobulin levels and autoantibody titers in women with yperprolactinaemia. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1998; 16: 515-516.
51. De Bellis A, Bizzarro A, Pivonello R, Lombardi G, Bellastella A: Prolactin and autoimmunity. Pituitary 2005; 8: 25-30.
52. Riedel M, Strassnig M, Schwarz MJ, Muller N: COX-2 inhibitors as adjunctive therapy in schizophrenia: rationale for use and evidence to date. CNS Drugs 2005; 19: 805-819.
53. Muller N, Strassnig M, Schwarz MJ, Ulmschneider M, Riedel M: COX-2 inhibitors as adjunctive therapy in schizophrenia. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2004; 13: 1033-1044.
54. Muller N, Ulmschneider M, Scheppach C, Schwarz MJ, Ackenheil M, Moller HJ, et al: COX-2 inhibition as a treatment approach in schizophrenia: immunological considerations and clinical effects of celecoxib addon therapy. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2004; 254: 14-22.
55. Atlas A, Gisslen M, Nordin C, Lindstrom L, Schwieler L: Acute psychotic symptoms in HIV-1 infected patients are associated with increased levels of kynurenic acid in cerebrospinal fluid. Brain Behav Immun 2007; 21: 86-91.
56. Alberati-Giani D, Ricciardi-Castagnoli P, Kohler C, Cesura AM: Regulation of the kynurenine metabolic pathway by interferon- gamma in murine cloned macrophages and microglial cells. J Neurochem 1996; 66: 996-1004.
57. Faurbye A: The role of amines in the etiology of schizophrenia. Compr Psychiatry 1968; 9: 155-177.
58. olightly KL, Lloyd JA, Hobson JE, Gallagher P, Mercer G, Young AH: Acute tryptophan depletion in schizophrenia. Psychol Med 2001; 31: 75-84.
59. Jospeh MH, Baker HF, Crow TJ, Riley GJ, Risby D: Brain tryptophan metabolism in schizophrenia: a post mortem study of metabolites of the serotonin and kynurenine pathways in schizophrenic and control subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1979; 62: 279-285.
60. Levkovitz Y, Ophir-Shaham O, Bloch Y, Treves I, Fennig S, Grauer E: Effect of L -tryptophan on memory in patients with schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis 2003; 191: 568-573.
61. Puzynski S, Jakomow B: Disturbances in tryptophan and serotonin metabolism in affective psychoses and schizophrenia. Pol J Pharmacol Pharm 1975; 27(suppl):47-60.
62. Rao ML, Gross G, Strebel B, Halaris A, Huber G, Braunig P, et al: Circadian rhythm of tryptophan, serotonin, melatonin, and pituitary hormones in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 1994; 35: 151-163.
63. Stewart BM: Biochemical aspects of schizophrenia. Am J Nurs 1975; 75: 2176-2179.
64. Whitaker-Azmitia PM, Borella A, Raio N: Serotonin depletion in the adult rat causes loss of the dendritic marker MAP-2. A new animal model of schizophrenia? Neuropsychopharmacology 1995; 12: 269-272.
65. Hayaishi O: Biochemical and Medical Aspects of Tryptophan Metabolism. Amsterdam, Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical Press, 1980.
66. Heyes MP, Saito K, Major EO, Milstien S, Markey SP, Vickers JH: A mechanism of quinolinic acid formation by brain in inflammatory neurological disease. Attenuation of synthesis from L -tryptophan by 6- chlorotryptophan and 4-chloro-3-hydroxyanthranilate. Brain 1993; 116: 1425-1450.
67. Mellor AL, Munn DH: Tryptophan catabolism and T-cell tolerance: immunosuppression by starvation? Immunol Today 1999; 20: 469-473.
68. Hayaishi O: Properties and function of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase. J Biochem (Tokyo) 1976; 79: 13P-21P.
69. Miller CL, Llenos IC, Dulay JR, Barillo MM, Yolken RH, Weis S: Expression of the kynurenine pathway enzyme tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase is increased in the frontal cortex of individuals with schizophrenia. Neurobiol Dis 2004; 15: 618-629.
70. Saito K, Ohta Y, Nagamura Y, Sasaki E, Ishiguro I: Relationship between L -tryptophan uptake and L -tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase activity in rat hepatocytes. Biochem Int 1990; 20: 71-80.
71. Satyanarayana U, Rao BS: Dietary tryptophan level and the enzymes of tryptophan NAD pathway. Br J Nutr 1980; 43: 107-113.
72. Smith SA, Carr FP, Pogson CI: The metabolism of L -tryptophan by isolated rat liver cells. Quantification of the relative importance of, and the effect of nutritional status on, the individual pathways of tryptophan metabolism. Biochem J 1980; 192: 673-686. Cytokines, Tryptophan Breakdown and Schizophrenia Neuropsychobiology 2009;59:123-129 129
73. Salter M, Pogson CI: The role of tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase in the hormonal control of tryptophan metabolism in isolated rat liver cells. Effects of glucocorticoids and experimental diabetes. Biochem J 1985; 229: 499- 504.
74. Carlin JM, Borden EC, Sondel PM, Byrne GI: Biologic-response-modifier- induced indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity in human peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures. J Immunol 1987; 139: 2414-2418.
75. Carlin JM, Borden EC, Sondel PM, Byrne GI:Interferon-induced indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity in human mononuclear phagocytes. J Leukoc Biol 1989; 45: 29-34.
76. Hu B, Hissong BD, Carlin JM: Interleukin-1 enhances indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity by increasing specific mRNA expressionin human mononuclear phagocytes. J Interferon Cytokine Res 1995; 15: 617-624.
77. Taylor MW, Feng GS: Relationship between interferon-gamma, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, and tryptophan catabolism. FASEB J 1991; 5: 2516-2522.
78. Yasui H, Takai K, Yoshida R, Hayaishi O: Interferon enhances tryptophan metabolism by inducing pulmonary indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase: its possible occurrence in cancer patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986; 83: 6622-6626.
79. Musso T, Gusella GL, Brooks A, Longo DL, Varesio L: Interleukin-4 inhibits indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase expression in human monocytes. Blood 1994; 83: 1408-1411.
80. Schwarz MJ, Chiang S, Muller N, Ackenheil M: T-helper-1 and T-helper-2 responses in psychiatric disorders. Brain Behav Immun 2001; 15: 340-370.
81. Schwarz MJ, Muller N, Riedel M, Ackenheil M: The Th2-hypothesis of schizophrenia: a strategy to identify a subgroup of schizophrenia caused by immune mechanisms. Med Hypotheses 2001; 56: 483-486.
82. Avgustin B, Wraber B, Tavcar R: Increased Th1 and Th2 immune reactivity with relative Th2 dominance in patients with acute exacerbation of schizophrenia. Croat Med J 2005; 46: 268-274.
83. Kim YK, Myint AM, Lee BH, Han CS, Lee HJ, Kim DJ, et al: Th1, Th2 and Th3 cytokine alteration in schizophrenia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2004; 28: 1129-1134.
84. Pae CU, Yoon CH, Kim TS, Kim JJ, Park SH, Lee CU, et al: Antipsychotic treatment may alter T-helper (TH) 2 arm cytokines. Int Immunopharmacol 2006; 6: 666-671.
85. Szuster-Ciesielska A, Slotwinska M, Stachura A, Marmurowska-Michalowska H, Kandefer- Szerszen M: Neuroleptics modulate cytokine and reactive oxygen species production in blood leukocytes of healthy volunteers. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2004; 52: 59-67.
86. Rothermundt M, Arolt V, Leadbeater J, Peters M, Rudolf S, Kirchner H: Cytokine production in unmedicated and treated schizophrenic patients. Neuroreport 2000; 11: 3385-3388.
87. Gilmour DG, Manowitz P, Frosch WA, Shopsin B: Association of plasma tryptophan levels with clinical change in female schizophrenic patients. Biol Psychiatry 1973; 6: 119-128.
88. Manowitz P, Gilmour DG, Racevskis J: Low plasma tryptophan levels in recently hospitalized schizophrenics. Biol Psychiatry 1973; 6: 109-118.
89. American Psychiatric Press: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, ed 4. Washington, American Psychiatric Press, 1994.
90. First M, Spitzer RL, Gibbon M, William JB: Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorder - Patient Edition (SCID-I/P, Version 2.0). New York, Biometrics Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1998.
91. Kay SR, Fiszbein A, Opler LA: The positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1987; 13: 261- 276.
92. Kim YK, Won SD, Lee KM, Choi HS, Jang HS, Lee BH, Han CS: A study on the reliability and validity of the Korean version of the Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia (K-CDSS). J Korean Neuropsychiatr Assoc 2005; 44: 446-45 5.
93. Cooper JD, Turnell DC, Green B, Verillon F: Automated sequential trace enrichment of dialysates and robotics. A technique for the preparation of biological samples prior to high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr 1988; 456: 53-69.
94. Hervé C, Beyne P, Jamault H, Delacoux E: Determination of tryptophan and its kynurenine pathway metabolites in human serum by high-performance liquid chromatography with simultaneous ultraviolet and fluorimetric detection. J Chromatogr B Biomed Appl 1996; 675: 157-161.
95. Maes M, Bosmans E, Kenis G, De Jong R, Smith RS, Meltzer HY: In vivo immunomodulatory effects of clozapine in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1997; 26: 221-225.
96. Monteleone P, Fabrazzo M, Tortorella A, Maj M: Plasma levels of interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha in chronic schizophrenia: effects of clozapine treatment. Psychiatry Res 1997; 71: 11-17.
97. Muller N, Empl M, Riedel M, Schwarz M, Ackenheil M: Neuroleptic treatment increases soluble IL-2 receptors and decreases soluble IL-6 receptors in schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997; 247: 308-313.
98. Pollmacher T, Fenzel T, Mullington J, Hinze-Selch D: The influence of clozapine treatment on plasma granulocyte colony-stimulating (G-CSF) levels. Pharmacopsychiatry 1997; 30: 118-121.
99. Hinze-Selch D, Becker EW, Stein GM, Berg PA, Mullington J, Holsboer F, et al: Effects of clozapine on in vitro immune parameters: a longitudinal study in clozapine-treated schizophrenic patients. Neuropsychopharmacology 1998; 19: 114-122.
100. Cazzullo CL, Sacchetti E, Galluzzo A, Panariello A, Adorni A, Pegoraro M, et al: Cytokine profiles in schizophrenic patients treated with risperidone: a 3-month follow-up study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2002; 26: 33-39.
101. Pollock A, McLaren EH: Serum prolactin concentration in patients taking neuroleptic drugs. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1998; 49: 513- 516.
102. Haddad PM, Sharma SG: Adverse effects of atypical antipsychotics: differential risk and clinical implications. CNS Drugs 2007; 21: 911-936.
103. Holzer L, Eap CB: Risperidone-induced symptomatic hyperprolactinaemia in adolescents. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2006; 26: 167-171.
104. Alves J, Falcao J, Martins JM, Saraiva MC, Godinho C, Arranhado E, et al: Immunoglobulin levels and autoantibody titers in women with yperprolactinaemia. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1998; 16: 515-516.
105. De Bellis A, Bizzarro A, Pivonello R, Lombardi G, Bellastella A: Prolactin and autoimmunity. Pituitary 2005; 8: 25-30.
106. Riedel M, Strassnig M, Schwarz MJ, Muller N: COX-2 inhibitors as adjunctive therapy in schizophrenia: rationale for use and evidence to date. CNS Drugs 2005; 19: 805-819.
107. Muller N, Strassnig M, Schwarz MJ, Ulmschneider M, Riedel M: COX-2 inhibitors as adjunctive therapy in schizophrenia. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2004; 13: 1033-1044.
108. Muller N, Ulmschneider M, Scheppach C, Schwarz MJ, Ackenheil M, Moller HJ, et al: COX-2 inhibition as a treatment approach in schizophrenia: immunological considerations and clinical effects of celecoxib addon therapy. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2004; 254: 14-22.
109. Atlas A, Gisslen M, Nordin C, Lindstrom L, Schwieler L: Acute psychotic symptoms in HIV-1 infected patients are associated with increased levels of kynurenic acid in cerebrospinal fluid. Brain Behav Immun 2007; 21: 86-91.
110. Alberati-Giani D, Ricciardi-Castagnoli P, Kohler C, Cesura AM: Regulation of the kynurenine metabolic pathway by interferon- gamma in murine cloned macrophages and microglial cells. J Neurochem 1996; 66: 996-1004.