Genotype-Environment Correlation in the Era of DNA

Behavior Genetics

Volumn 44, Issue 6, 2014, Pages 629-638

  Plomin, Robert ^a  

^a MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Active model of experience; Genome wide complex trait analysis (GCTA); Genotype environment correlation; Group level environments; Socioeconomic status

Indexed keywords

DNA;

ADOPTION; ARTICLE; BEHAVIOR GENETICS; DIZYGOTIC TWINS; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GENE LINKAGE DISEQUILIBRIUM; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC SIMILARITY; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HEREDITY; HERITABILITY; HOME ENVIRONMENT; HUMAN; MONOZYGOTIC TWINS; NUCLEAR FAMILY; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; SOCIAL ATTITUDE; BEHAVIOR; CHILD; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; MULTIFACTORIAL INHERITANCE; PRESCHOOL CHILD; QUANTITATIVE TRAIT; SOCIAL CLASS;

BEHAVIOR; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; GENETICS, BEHAVIORAL; GENOME-WIDE ASSOCIATION STUDY; HUMANS; MULTIFACTORIAL INHERITANCE; POLYMORPHISM, SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE; QUANTITATIVE TRAIT, HERITABLE; SOCIAL CLASS;

EID: 84911393617     PISSN: 00018244     EISSN: 15733297     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10519-014-9673-7     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. Asbury K, Plomin R (2013) G is for genes: what genetics can teach us about how we teach our children. Wiley, Oxford
2. Asbury K, Almeida D, Hibel J, Harlaar N, Plomin R (2008) Clones in the classroom: a daily diary study of the nonshared environmental relationship between monozygotic twin differences in school experience and achievement. Twin Res Hum Genet 11(6):586–595. doi:10.1375/twin.11.6.586
3. Avinun R, Knafo A (2013) Parenting as a reaction evoked by children’s genotype: a meta-analysis of children-as-twins studies. Pers Soc Psychol Rev 18(1):87–102. doi:10.1177/1088868313498308
4. Benjamin DJ, Cesarini D, van der Loos MJHM, Dawes CT, Koellinger PD, Magnusson PKE, Chabris CF, Conley D, Laibson D, Johannesson M, Visscher PM (2012) The genetic architecture of economic and political preferences. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109(21):8026–8031. doi:10.1073/pnas.1120666109
5. Benyamin B, Pourcain B, Davis OS, Davies G, Hansell NK, Brion MJ, Kirkpatrick RM, Cents RA, Franic S, Miller MB, Haworth CM, Meaburn E, Price TS, Evans DM, Timpson N, Kemp J, Ring S, McArdle W, Medland SE, Yang J, Harris SE, Liewald DC, Scheet P, Xiao X, Hudziak JJ, de Geus EJ, Jaddoe VW, Starr JM, Verhulst FC, Pennell C, Tiemeier H, Iacono WG, Palmer LJ, Montgomery GW, Martin NG, Boomsma DI, Posthuma D, McGue M, Wright MJ, Davey Smith G, Deary IJ, Plomin R, Visscher PM (2013) Childhood intelligence is heritable, highly polygenic and associated with FNBP1L. Mol Psychiatry 19(2):253–258. doi:10.1038/mp.2012.184
6. Butcher LM, Plomin R (2008) The nature of nurture: a genomewide association scan for family chaos. Behav Genet 38(4):361–371. doi:10.1007/s10519-008-9198-z
7. Caspi A, Sugden K, Moffitt TE, Taylor A, Craig IW, Harrington H, McClay J, Mill J, Martin J, Braithwaite A, Poulton R (2003) Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science 301(5631):386–389. doi:10.1126/science.1083968
8. Cross-Disorder Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium (2013) Genetic relationship between five psychiatric disorders estimated from genome-wide SNPs. Nat Genet 45(9):984–994. doi:10.1038/ng.2711
9. D’Onofrio BM, Turkheimer EN, Eaves LJ, Corey LA, Berg K, Solaas MH, Emery RE (2003) The role of the children of twins design in elucidating causal relations between parent characteristics and child outcomes. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 44(8):1130–1144. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00196
10. Davies G, Tenesa A, Payton A, Yang J, Harris SE, Liewald D, Ke X, Le Hellard S, Christoforou A, Luciano M, McGhee K, Lopez L, Gow AJ, Corley J, Redmond P, Fox HC, Haggarty P, Whalley LJ, McNeill G, Goddard ME, Espeseth T, Lundervold AJ, Reinvang I, Pickles A, Steen VM, Ollier W, Porteous DJ, Horan M, Starr JM, Pendleton N, Visscher PM, Deary IJ (2011) Genome-wide association studies establish that human intelligence is highly heritable and polygenic. Mol Psychiatry 16(10):996–1005. doi:10.1038/mp.2011.85
11. Deary IJ, Yang J, Davies G, Harris SE, Tenesa A, Liewald D, Luciano M, Lopez LM, Gow AJ, Corley J, Redmond P, Fox HC, Rowe SJ, Haggarty P, McNeill G, Goddard ME, Porteous DJ, Whalley LJ, Starr JM, Visscher PM (2012) Genetic contributions to stability and change in intelligence from childhood to old age. Nature 482(7384):212–215. doi:10.1038/nature10781
12. Hanscombe KB, Haworth CMA, Davis OSP, Jaffee SR, Plomin R (2010) The nature (and nurture) of children’s perceptions of family chaos. Learn Individ Differ 20(5):549–553. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2010.06.005
13. Hanscombe KB, Haworth CMA, Davis OSP, Jaffee SR, Plomin R (2011) Chaotic homes and school achievement: a twin study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 52(11):1212–1220. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02421.x
14. Harlaar N, Trzaskowski M, Dale PS, Plomin R (2014) Word reading fluency: role of genome-wide SNPs in developmental stability and correlations with print exposure. Child Dev 85(3):1190–1205. doi:10.1111/cdev.12207
15. Haworth CMA, Davis OSP, Hanscombe KB, Kovas Y, Dale PS, Plomin R (2013) Understanding the science-learning environment: a genetically sensitive approach. Learn Individ Differ 23:145–150. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.07.018
16. Hemani G, Yang J, Vinkhuyzen A, Powell JE, Willemsen G, Hottenga J-J, Abdellaoui A, Mangino M, Valdes AM, Medland SE, Madden PA, Heath AC, Henders AK, Nyholt DR, de Geus EJC, Magnusson PKE, Ingelsson E, Montgomery GW, Spector TD, Boomsma DI, Pedersen NL, Martin NG, Visscher PM (2013) Inference of the genetic architecture underlying BMI and height with the use of 20,240 sibling pairs. Am J Hum Genet 93(5):865–875. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.10.005
17. Horn JM, Loehlin JCA (2010) Heredity and environment in 300 adoptive families: The Texas Adoption Project. AldineTransaction, New Brunswick
18. Horn J, Loehlin J, Willerman L (1979) Intellectual resemblance among adoptive and biological relatives: The Texas Adoption Project. Behav Genet 9(3):177–207. doi:10.1007/BF01071300
19. Jaffee SR, Hanscombe KB, Haworth CM, Davis OS, Plomin R (2012) Chaotic homes and children’s disruptive behavior: a longitudinal cross-lagged twin study. Psychol Sci 23(6):643–650. doi:10.1177/0956797611431693
20. Keller MF, Saad M, Bras J, Bettella F, Nicolaou N, Simon-Sanchez J, Mittag F, Buchel F, Sharma M, Gibbs JR, Schulte C, Moskvina V, Durr A, Holmans P, Kilarski LL, Guerreiro R, Hernandez DG, Brice A, Ylikotila P, Stefansson H, Majamaa K, Morris HR, Williams N, Gasser T, Heutink P, Wood NW, Hardy J, Martinez M, Singleton AB, Nalls MA, International Parkinson’s Disease Genomics Consortium, Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium 2 (2012) Using genome-wide complex trait analysis to quantify ‘missing heritability’ in Parkinson’s disease. Hum Mol Genet 21(22):4996–5009. doi:10.1093/hmg/dds335
21. Kendler KS, Baker JH (2007) Genetic influences on measures of the environment: a systematic review. Psychol Med 37(5):615–626. doi:10.1017/S0033291706009524
22. Kendler KS, Eaves LJ (1986) Models for the joint effects of genotype and environment on liability to psychiatric illness. Am J Psychiatry 143(3):279–289
23. Knafo A, Jaffee SR (2013) Gene-environment correlation in developmental psychopathology. Dev Psychopathol 25(1):1–6. doi:10.1017/S0954579412000855
24. Kos MZ, Yan J, Dick DM, Agrawal A, Bucholz KK, Rice JP, Johnson EO, Schuckit M, Kuperman S, Kramer J, Goate AM, Tischfield JA, Foroud T, Nurnberger J, Hesselbrock V, Porjesz B, Bierut LJ, Edenberg HJ, Almasy L (2013) Common biological networks underlie genetic risk for alcoholism in African- and European-American populations. Genes Brain Behav 12(5):532–542. doi:10.1111/gbb.12043
25. Lee SH, Wray NR, Goddard ME, Visscher PM (2011) Estimating missing heritability for disease from genome-wide association studies. Am J Hum Genet 88(3):294–305. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.02.002
26. Lee SH, DeCandia TR, Ripke S, Yang J, Schizophrenia Psychiatric Genome-Wide Association Study Consortium (PGC-SCZ), International Schizophrenia Consortium (ISC), Molecular Genetics of Schizophrenia Collaboration (MGS), Sullivan PF, Goddard ME, Keller MC, Visscher PM, Wray NR (2012a) Estimating the proportion of variation in susceptibility to schizophrenia captured by common SNPs. Nat Genet 44(3):247–250. doi:10.1038/ng.1108
27. Lee SH, Yang J, Goddard ME, Visscher PM, Wray NR (2012b) Estimation of pleiotropy between complex diseases using single-nucleotide polymorphism-derived genomic relationships and restricted maximum likelihood. Bioinformatics 28(19):2540–2542. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/bts474
28. Lee SH, Harold D, Nyholt DR, ANZGene Consortium, International Endogene Consortium, The Genetic and Environmental Risk for Alzheimer’s disease (GERAD1) Consortium, Goddard ME, Zondervan KT, Williams J, Montgomery GW, Wray NR, Visscher PM (2013) Estimation and partitioning of polygenic variation captured by common SNPs for Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis and endometriosis. Hum Mol Genet 22(4):832–841. doi:10.1093/hmg/dds491
29. Lindzey G, Loehlin J, Manosevitz M, Thiessen D (1971) Behavioral genetics. Annu Rev Psychol 22(1):39–94. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.22.020171.000351
30. Loehlin JC (1987) Latent variable models: An introduction to factor, path, and structural analysis. Erlbaum, Hillsdale
31. Loehlin JC (1992) Genes and environment in personality development. Sage Publications Inc., Newbury Park
32. Loehlin JC (1997) Genes and environment. In: Magnusson D (ed) The lifespan development of individuals: Behavioral, neurobiological, and psychosocial perspectives: a synthesis. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 38–51
33. 2 = 0: what does it imply for views of human development? Res Hum Dev 4(3–4):151–162. doi:10.1080/15427600701662959
34. Loehlin JC (2010a) Environment and the behavior genetics of personality: let me count the ways. Pers IndividDiff 49(4):302–305. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.10.035
35. Loehlin JC (2010b) Is there an active gene-environment correlation in adolescent drinking behavior? Behav Genet 40(4):447–451. doi:10.1007/s10519-010-9347-z
36. Loehlin JC (2011) Genetic and environmental structures of personality: a cluster-analysis approach. Pers Individ Diff 51(5):662–666. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.06.005
37. Loehlin J (2012) The differential heritability of personality item clusters. Behav Genet 42(3):500–507. doi:10.1007/s10519-011-9515-9
38. Loehlin JC (2013) Arthur R. Jensen, 1923–2012. Twin Res Hum Genet 16(1):499–500. doi:10.1017/thg.2012.143
39. Loehlin J, DeFries J (1987) Genotype-environment correlation and IQ. Behav Genet 17(3):263–277. doi:10.1007/BF01065506
40. Loehlin JC, Horn JM (2012) How general is the “General Factor of Personality”? Evidence from the Texas Adoption Project. J Res Pers 46(6):655–663. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2012.07.004
41. Loehlin JC, Martin NG (2011a) The general factor of personality: questions and elaborations. J Res Pers 45(1):44–49. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.11.008
42. Loehlin JC, Martin NG (2011b) What does a general factor of personality look like in unshared environmental variance? Pers Individ Diff 51(7):862–865. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.07.021
43. Loehlin JC, Martin NG (2013) General and supplementary factors of personality in genetic and environmental correlation matrices. Pers Individ Diff 54(6):761–766. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.12.014
44. Loehlin JC, Nichols J (1976) Heredity, environment and personality: A study of 850 sets of twins. University of Texas, Austin
45. Loehlin JC, Lindzey G, Spuhler JN (1975) Race differences in intelligence. Freeman, San Francisco
46. Loehlin JC, Horn JM, Willerman L (1981) Personality resemblance in adoptive familes. Behav Genet 11(4):309–330. doi:10.1007/BF01070814
47. Lubke GH, Hottenga JJ, Walters R, Laurin C, de Geus EJ, Willemsen G, Smit JH, Middeldorp CM, Penninx BW, Vink JM, Boomsma DI (2012) Estimating the genetic variance of major depressive disorder due to all single nucleotide polymorphisms. Biol Psychiatry 72(8):707–709. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.03.011
48. Lucht M, Barnow S, Schroeder W, Grabe HJ, Finckh U, John U, Freyberger HJ, Herrmann FH (2006) Negative perceived paternal parenting is associated with dopamine D2 receptor exon 8 and GABA(A) alpha 6 receptor variants: an explorative study. Am J Med Genet B 141(2):167–172. doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.30255
49. Marioni RE, Davies G, Hayward C, Liewald D, Kerr SM, Campbell A, Luciano M, Smith BH, Padmanabhan S, Hocking LJ, Hastie ND, Wright AF, Porteous DJ, Visscher PM, Deary IJ (2014) Molecular genetic contributions to socioeconomic status and intelligence. Intelligence 44:26–32. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.02.006
50. McGue M, Zhang Y, Miller MB, Basu S, Vrieze S, Hicks B, Malone S, Oetting WS, Iacono WG (2013) A genome-wide association study of behavioral disinhibition. Behav Genet 43(5):363–373. doi:10.1007/s10519-013-9606-x
51. Narusyte J, Neiderhiser JM, D’Onofrio BM, Reiss D, Spotts EL, Ganiban J, Lichtenstein P (2008) Testing different types of genotype-environment correlation: an extended children-of-twins model. Dev Psychol 44(6):1591–1603. doi:10.1037/a0013911
52. Petrill SA, Bartlett CW, Blair C (2013) Editorial: gene–environment interplay in child psychology and psychiatry-challenges and ways forward. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 54(10):1029. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12133
53. Plomin R (1994) Genetics and experience: The interplay between nature and nurture. Sage Publications Inc., Thousand Oaks
54. Plomin R, Bergeman CS (1991) The nature of nurture: genetic influence on “environmental” measures. (With open peer commentary). Behav Brain Sci 14(3):373–414. doi:10.1017/S0140525X00070278
55. Plomin R, DeFries JC (1985) Origins of individual differences in infancy: The Colorado Adoption Project. Academic Press Inc, Orlando
56. Plomin R, Simpson MA (2013) The future of genomics for developmentalists. Dev Psychopathol 25(4):1263–1278. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000606
57. Plomin R, DeFries JC, Loehlin JC (1977) Genotype-environment interaction and correlation in the analysis of human behavior. Psychol Bull 84(2):309–322. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.84.2.309
58. Plomin R, Loehlin JC, DeFries JC (1985) Genetic and environmental components of “environmental” influences. Dev Psychol 21(3):391–402. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.21.3.391
59. Plomin R, Haworth CMA, Meaburn EL, Price T, Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium 2, Davis OSP (2013) Common DNA markers can account for more than half of the genetic influence on cognitive abilities. Psychol Sci 24(4):562–568. doi:10.1177/0956797612457952
60. Power RA, Wingenbach T, Cohen-Woods S, Uher R, Ng MY, Butler AW, Ising M, Craddock N, Owen MJ, Korszun A, Jones L, Jones I, Gill M, Rice JP, Maier W, Zobel A, Mors O, Placentino A, Rietschel M, Lucae S, Holsboer F, Binder EB, Keers R, Tozzi F, Muglia P, Breen G, Craig IW, Müller-Myhsok B, Kennedy JL, Strauss J, Vincent JB, Lewis CM, Farmer AE, McGuffin P (2013) Estimating the heritability of reporting stressful life events captured by common genetic variants. Psychol Med 43(9):1965–1971. doi:10.1017/S0033291712002589
61. Rietveld CA, Cesarini D, Benjamin DJ, Koellinger PD, De Neve JE, Tiemeier H, Johannesson M, Magnusson PK, Pedersen NL, Krueger RF, Bartels M (2013a) Molecular genetics and subjective well-being. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110(24):9692–9697. doi:10.1073/pnas.1222171110
62. Rietveld CA, Medland SE, Derringer J, Yang J, Esko T, Martin NW, Westra H-J, Shakhbazov K, Abdellaoui A, Agrawal A, Albrecht E, Alizadeh BZ, Amin N, Barnard J, Baumeister SE, Benke KS, Bielak LF, Boatman JA, Boyle PA, Davies G, de Leeuw C, Eklund N, Evans DS, Ferhmann R, Fischer K, Gieger C, Gjessing HK, Hägg S, Harris JR, Hayward C, Holzapfel C, Ibrahim-Verbaas CA, Ingelsson E, Jacobsson B, Joshi PK, Jugessur A, Kaakinen M, Kanoni S, Karjalainen J, Kolcic I, Kristiansson K, Kutalik Z, Lahti J, Lee SH, Lin P, Lind PA, Liu Y, Lohman K, Loitfelder M, McMahon G, Vidal PM, Meirelles O, Milani L, Myhre R, Nuotio M-L, Oldmeadow CJ, Petrovic KE, Peyrot WJ, Polašek O, Quaye L, Reinmaa E, Rice JP, Rizzi TS, Schmidt H, Schmidt R, Smith AV, Smith JA, Tanaka T, Terracciano A, van der Loos MJHM, Vitart V, Völzke H, Wellmann J, Yu L, Zhao W, Allik J, Attia JR, Bandinelli S, Bastardot F, Beauchamp J, Bennett DA, Berger K, Bierut LJ, Boomsma DI, Bültmann U, Campbell H, Chabris CF, Cherkas L, Chung MK, Cucca F, de Andrade M, De Jager PL, De Neve J-E, Deary IJ, Dedoussis GV, Deloukas P, Dimitriou M, Eiríksdóttir G, Elderson MF, Eriksson JG, Evans DM, Faul JD, Ferrucci L, Garcia ME, Grönberg H, Guðnason V, Hall P, Harris JM, Harris TB, Hastie ND, Heath AC, Hernandez DG, Hoffmann W, Hofman A, Holle R, Holliday EG, Hottenga J–J, Iacono WG, Illig T, Järvelin M-R, Kähönen M, Kaprio J, Kirkpatrick RM, Kowgier M, Latvala A, Launer LJ, Lawlor DA, Lehtimäki T, Li J, Lichtenstein P, Lichtner P, Liewald DC, Madden PA, Magnusson PKE, Mäkinen TE, Masala M, McGue M, Metspalu A, Mielck A, Miller MB, Montgomery GW, Mukherjee S, Nyholt DR, Oostra BA, Palmer LJ, Palotie A, Penninx BWJH, Perola M, Peyser PA, Preisig M, Räikkönen K, Raitakari OT, Realo A, Ring SM, Ripatti S, Rivadeneira F, Rudan I, Rustichini A, Salomaa V, Sarin A-P, Schlessinger D, Scott RJ, Snieder H, St Pourcain B, Starr JM, Sul JH, Surakka I, Svento R, Teumer A, Study TLC, Tiemeier H, van Rooij FJA, Van Wagoner DR, Vartiainen E, Viikari J, Vollenweider P, Vonk JM, Waeber G, Weir DR, Wichmann H-E, Widen E, Willemsen G, Wilson JF, Wright AF, Conley D, Davey-Smith G, Franke L, Groenen PJF, Hofman A, Johannesson M, Kardia SLR, Krueger RF, Laibson D, Martin NG, Meyer MN, Posthuma D, Thurik AR, Timpson NJ, Uitterlinden AG, van Duijn CM, Visscher PM, Benjamin DJ, Cesarini D, Koellinger PD (2013b) GWAS of 126,559 individuals identifies genetic variants associated with educational attainment. Science 340(6139):1467–1471. doi:10.1126/science.1235488
63. Roberts RC (1967) Some concepts and methods in quantitative genetics. In: Hirsch J (ed) Behavior-genetic analysis. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 214–257
64. Sirin SR (2005) Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: a meta-analytic review of research. Rev Educ Res 75(3):417–453. doi:10.3102/00346543075003417
65. Tansey KE, Guipponi M, Hu X, Domenici E, Lewis G, Malafosse A, Wendland JR, Lewis CM, McGuffin P, Uher R (2013) Contribution of common genetic variants to antidepressant response. Biol Psychiatry 73(7):679–682. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.10.030
66. Trzaskowski M, Dale PS, Plomin R (2013a) No genetic influence for childhood behavior problems from DNA analysis. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 52(10):1048–1056. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.07.016
67. Trzaskowski M, Davis OS, Defries JC, Yang J, Visscher PM, Plomin R (2013b) DNA evidence for strong genome-wide pleiotropy of cognitive and learning abilities. Behav Genet 43(4):267–273. doi:10.1007/s10519-013-9594-x
68. Trzaskowski M, Shakeshaft NG, Plomin R (2013c) Intelligence indexes generalist genes for cognitive abilities. Intelligence 41(5):560–565. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.07.011
69. Trzaskowski M, Yang J, Visscher PM, Plomin R (2013d) DNA evidence for strong genetic stability and increasing heritability of intelligence from age 7 to 12. Mol Psychiatry 19(3):380–384. doi:10.1038/mp.2012.191
70. Trzaskowski M, Harlaar N, Arden R, Krapohl E, Rimfeld K, McMillan A, Dale PS, Plomin R (2014) Genetic influence on family socioeconomic status and children’s intelligence. Intelligence 42:83–88. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.11.002
71. van der Loos MJ, Rietveld CA, Eklund N, Koellinger PD, Rivadeneira F, Abecasis GR, Ankra-Badu GA, Baumeister SE, Benjamin DJ, Biffar R, Blankenberg S, Boomsma DI, Cesarini D, Cucca F, de Geus EJ, Dedoussis G, Deloukas P, Dimitriou M, Eiriksdottir G, Eriksson J, Gieger C, Gudnason V, Hohne B, Holle R, Hottenga JJ, Isaacs A, Jarvelin MR, Johannesson M, Kaakinen M, Kahonen M, Kanoni S, Laaksonen MA, Lahti J, Launer LJ, Lehtimaki T, Loitfelder M, Magnusson PK, Naitza S, Oostra BA, Perola M, Petrovic K, Quaye L, Raitakari O, Ripatti S, Scheet P, Schlessinger D, Schmidt CO, Schmidt H, Schmidt R, Senft A, Smith AV, Spector TD, Surakka I, Svento R, Terracciano A, Tikkanen E, van Duijn CM, Viikari J, Volzke H, Wichmann HE, Wild PS, Willems SM, Willemsen G, van Rooij FJ, Groenen PJ, Uitterlinden AG, Hofman A, Thurik AR (2013) The molecular genetic architecture of self-employment. PLoS ONE 8(4):e60542. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0060542
72. Verweij KJ, Vinkhuyzen AA, Benyamin B, Lynskey MT, Quaye L, Agrawal A, Gordon SD, Montgomery GW, Madden PA, Heath AC, Spector TD, Martin NG, Medland SE (2013) The genetic aetiology of cannabis use initiation: a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies and a SNP-based heritability estimation. Addict Biol 18(5):846–850. doi:10.1111/j.1369-1600.2012.00478.x
73. Vinkhuyzen AAE, Pedersen NL, Yang J, Lee SH, Magnusson PKE, Iacono WG, McGue M, Madden PAF, Heath AC, Luciano M, Payton A, Horan M, Ollier W, Pendleton N, Deary IJ, Montgomery GW, Martin NG, Visscher PM, Wray NR (2012) Common SNPs explain some of the variation in the personality dimensions of neuroticism and extraversion. Transl Psychiatry 2:e102. doi:10.1038/tp.2012.27
74. Visscher PM, Medland SE, Ferreira MA, Morley KI, Zhu G, Cornes BK, Montgomery GW, Martin NG (2006) Assumption-free estimation of heritability from genome-wide identity-by-descent sharing between full siblings. PLoS Genet 2(3):e41. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020041
75. Vrieze SI, McGue M, Miller MB, Hicks BM, Iacono WG (2013) Three mutually informative ways to understand the genetic relationships among behavioral disinhibition, alcohol use, drug use, nicotine use/dependence, and their co-occurrence: twin biometry, GCTA, and genome-wide scoring. Behav Genet 43(2):97–107. doi:10.1007/s10519-013-9584-z
76. Yang J, Benyamin B, McEvoy BP, Gordon S, Henders AK, Nyholt DR, Madden PA, Heath AC, Martin NG, Montgomery GW, Goddard ME, Visscher PM (2010) Common SNPs explain a large proportion of the heritability for human height. Nat Genet 42(7):565–569. doi:10.1038/ng.608
77. Yang J, Manolio TA, Pasquale LR, Boerwinkle E, Caporaso N, Cunningham JM, de Andrade M, Feenstra B, Feingold E, Hayes MG, Hill WG, Landi MT, Alonso A, Lettre G, Lin P, Ling H, Lowe W, Mathias RA, Melbye M, Pugh E, Cornelis MC, Weir BS, Goddard ME, Visscher PM (2011a) Genome partitioning of genetic variation for complex traits using common SNPs. Nat Genet 43(6):519–525. doi:10.1038/ng.823
78. Yang JA, Lee SH, Goddard ME, Visscher PM (2011b) GCTA: a tool for genome-wide complex trait analysis. Am J Hum Genet 88(1):76–82. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.11.011
79. Yang J, Lee SH, Goddard ME, Visscher PM (2013a) Genome-wide Complex Trait Analysis (GCTA): Methods, data analyses, and interpretations. In: Gondro C, van der Werf J, Hayes B (eds) Genome-wide association studies and genomic prediction. Methods Mol Biol 1019:215–236. doi:10.1007/978-1-62703-447-0_9
80. Yang J, Lee T, Kim J, Cho M-C, Han B-G, Lee J-Y, Lee H-J, Cho S, Kim H (2013b) Ubiquitous polygenicity of human complex traits: genome-wide analysis of 49 traits in Koreans. PLoS Genet 9(3):e1003355. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1003355
81. Zaitlen N, Kraft P (2012) Heritability in the genome-wide association era. Hum Genet 131(10):1655–1664. doi:10.1007/s00439-012-1199-6