The intersection of CMOS microsystems and upconversion nanoparticles for luminescence bioimaging and bioassays

Sensors (Switzerland)

Volumn 14, Issue 9, 2014, Pages 16829-16855

  Wei, Liping ^a   Doughan, Samer ^b   Han, Yi ^b   Da Costa, Matthew V ^b   Krull, Ulrich J ^b   Ho, Derek ^a  

^a CITY UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Bioassays; Bioimaging; Biosensors; CMOS; Fluorescence; Luminescence resonance energy transfer; Multiplexing; Upconversion nanoparticle

Indexed keywords

BIOASSAY; BIOSENSORS; CMOS INTEGRATED CIRCUITS; ENERGY TRANSFER; FLUORESCENCE; INFRARED DEVICES; LUMINESCENCE; MOS DEVICES; MULTIPLEXING; READOUT SYSTEMS; SEMICONDUCTOR QUANTUM DOTS; SIGNAL DETECTION; TIME DOMAIN ANALYSIS;

BIO-IMAGING; COMPLEMENTARY METAL-OXIDE-SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGIES; ELECTRONIC READ-OUT SYSTEMS; NEAR-INFRARED WAVELENGTH; RESONANCE ENERGY TRANSFER; TIME RESOLVED TECHNIQUE; UPCONVERSION NANOPARTICLES; VISIBLE AND ULTRAVIOLET;

NANOPARTICLES;

EID: 84907212383     PISSN: 14248220     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/s140916829     Document Type: Review

References (104)

1. DaCosta, M. V.; Doughan, S.; Han, Y.; Krull, U. J. Lanthanide upconversion nanoparticles and applications in bioassays and bioimaging: A review. Anal. Chim. Acta 2014, 832, 1-33.
2. Auzel, F. Upconversion and anti-stokes processes with f and d ions in solids. Chem. Rev. 2003, 104, 139-174.
3. Chen, G.; Qiu, H.; Prasad, P. N.; Chen, X. Upconversion nanoparticles: Design, nanochemistry, and applications in theranostics. Chem. Rev. 2014, 114, 5161-5214.
4. 4 nanocrystals. Adv. Mater. 2004, 16, 2102-2105.
5. 4 nanoparticles. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 5642-5643.
6. 3. Phys. Rev. B 1970, 1, 4208-4212.
7. 4 upconversion fluorescent nanocrystals. Mater. Lett. 2009, 63, 325-327.
8. Li, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Jiang, S. Multicolor core/shell-structured upconversion fluorescent nanoparticles. Adv. Mater. 2008, 20, 4765-4769.
9. 4: Yb/Tm hexaplate nanocrystals. Nanoscale 2011, 3, 963-966.
10. 4 nanorods. J. Phys. Chem. C 2011, 115, 20141-20147.
11. Chen, G.; Qiu, H.; Fan, R.; Hao, S.; Tan, S.; Yang, C.; Han, G. Lanthanide-doped ultrasmall yttrium fluoride nanoparticles with enhanced multicolor upconversion photoluminescence. J. Mater. Chem. 2012, 22, 20190-20196.
12. 4 nanoparticles: Synthesis and multicolor upconversion tuning. Comptes Rendus Chim. 2010, 13, 731-736.
13. 3+ nanocrystals. J. Appl. Phys. 2004, 96, 661-667.
14. 3+ ions. Nanotechnology 2009, doi: 10. 1088/0957-4484/20/38/385704.
15. 4: Yb/Er nanoparticles. Wuhan Univ. J. Nat. Sci. 2013, 18, 207-212.
16. 4 nanocrystals with tunable upconversion fluorescence. Langmuir 2008, 24, 12123-12125.
17. Wang, F.; Deng, R.; Wang, J.; Wang, Q.; Han, Y.; Zhu, H.; Chen, X.; Liu, X. Tuning upconversion through energy migration in core-shell nanoparticles. Nat. Mater. 2011, 10, 968-973.
18. Gorris, H. H.; Ali, R.; Saleh, S. M.; Wolfbeis, O. S. Tuning the dual emission of photon-upconverting nanoparticles for ratiometric multiplexed encoding. Adv. Mater. 2011, 23, 1652-1655.
19. 4 nanophosphor to cdse quantum dots. J. Phys. Chem. C 2010, 114, 17535-17541.
20. Dou, Q.; Zhang, Y. Tuning of the structure and emission spectra of upconversion nanocrystals by alkali ion doping. Langmuir 2011, 27, 13236-13241.
21. Nguyen, T. L.; Spizzirri, P.; Wilson, G.; Mulvaney, P. Tunable light emission using quantum dot-coated upconverters. Chem. Commun. 2008, doi: 10. 1039/B814771J.
22. Wang, L.; Yan, R.; Huo, Z.; Wang, L.; Zeng, J.; Bao, J.; Wang, X.; Peng, Q.; Li, Y. Fluorescence resonant energy transfer biosensor based on upconversion-luminescent nanoparticles. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2005, 44, 6054-6057.
23. Haase, M.; Schäfer, H. Upconverting nanoparticles. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2011, 50, 5808-5829.
24. Saboktakin, M.; Ye, X.; Oh, S. J.; Hong, S. H.; Fafarman, A. T.; Chettiar, U. K.; Engheta, N.; Murray, C. B.; Kagan, C. R. Metal-enhanced upconversion luminescence tunable through metal nanoparticle-nanophosphor separation. ACS Nano 2012, 6, 8758-8766.
25. 3+ codoped nanocrystals. Nano Lett. 2010, 10, 134-138.
26. 4: Yb, Er nanocrystals via a direct assembly method. Chem. Commun. 2009, doi: 10. 1039/B909164E.
27. 4: Yb/Tm hexaplate nanocrystals using gold nanoparticles or nanoshells. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2010, 49, 2865-2868.
28. 3+ nanorods with au nanoparticles or shells for flexible amorphous silicon solar cells. Nanotechnology 2012, doi: 10. 1088/0957-4484/23/2/025402.
29. 4: Yb, Tm hybrid nanostructures. Chem. Commun. 2011, 47, 7671-7673.
30. 3: Er microspheres and metal enhancement using gold nanoparticles. RSC Adv. 2012, 2, 10592-10597.
31. 3+ nanocrystal by 3d plasmonic nano-antennas. Adv. Mater. 2012, 24, OP236-OP241.
32. Rosenblum, L. T.; Kosaka, N.; Mitsunaga, M.; Choyke, P. L.; Kobayashi, H. In vivo molecular imaging using nanomaterials: General in vivo characteristics of nano-sized reagents and applications for cancer diagnosis. Mol. Membr. Biol. 2010, 27, 274-285.
33. Cheng, L.; Wang, C.; Liu, Z. Upconversion nanoparticles and their composite nanostructures for biomedical imaging and cancer therapy. Nanoscale 2013, 5, 23-37.
34. Zijlmans, H. J. M. A. A.; Bonnet, J.; Burton, J.; Kardos, K.; Vail, T.; Niedbala, R. S.; Tanke, H. J. Detection of cell and tissue surface antigens using up-converting phosphors: A new reporter technology. Anal. Biochem. 1999, 267, 30-36.
35. Hampl, J.; Hall, M.; Mufti, N. A.; Yao, Y. M. M.; MacQueen, D. B.; Wright, W. H.; Cooper, D. E. Upconverting phosphor reporters in immunochromatographic assays. Anal. Biochem. 2001, 288, 176-187.
36. Niedbala, R. S.; Feindt, H.; Kardos, K.; Vail, T.; Burton, J.; Bielska, B.; Li, S.; Milunic, D.; Bourdelle, P.; Vallejo, R. Detection of analytes by immunoassay using up-converting phosphor technology. Anal. Biochem. 2001, 293, 22-30.
37. Zuiderwijk, M.; Tanke, H. J.; Niedbala, R. S.; Corstjens, P. L. A. M. An amplification-free hybridization-based DNA assay to detect streptococcus pneumoniae utilizing the up-converting phosphor technology. Clin. Biochem. 2003, 36, 401-403.
38. Yan, Z.; Zhou, L.; Zhao, Y.; Wang, J.; Huang, L.; Hu, K.; Liu, H.; Wang, H.; Guo, Z.; Song, Y.; et al. Rapid quantitative detection of yersinia pestis by lateral-flow immunoassay and up-converting phosphor technology-based biosensor. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2006, 119, 656-663.
39. Kuningas, K.; Ukonaho, T.; Päkkilä, H.; Rantanen, T.; Rosenberg, J.; Lövgren, T.; Soukka, T. Upconversion fluorescence resonance energy transfer in a homogeneous immunoassay for estradiol. Anal. Chem. 2006, 78, 4690-4696.
40. Wu, S.; Duan, N.; Wang, Z.; Wang, H. Aptamer-functionalized magnetic nanoparticle-based bioassay for the detection of ochratoxin a using upconversion nanoparticles as labels. Analyst 2011, 136, 2306-2314.
41. Päkkilä, H.; Ylihärsilä, M.; Lahtinen, S.; Hattara, L.; Salminen, N.; Arppe, R.; Lastusaari, M.; Saviranta, P.; Soukka, T. Quantitative multianalyte microarray immunoassay utilizing upconverting phosphor technology. Anal. Chem. 2012, 84, 8628-8634.
42. Wu, S.; Duan, N.; Zhu, C.; Ma, X.; Wang, M.; Wang, Z. Magnetic nanobead-based immunoassay for the simultaneous detection of aflatoxin b1 and ochratoxin a using upconversion nanoparticles as multicolor labels. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2011, 30, 35-42.
43. Wang, L.; Li, Y. Luminescent nanocrystals for nonenzymatic glucose concentration determination. Chem. A Eur. J. 2007, 13, 4203-4207.
44. Corstjens, P. L. A. M.; Zuiderwijk, M.; Nilsson, M.; Feindt, H.; Niedbala, R. S.; Tanke, H. J. Lateral-flow and up-converting phosphor reporters to detect single-stranded nucleic acids in a sandwich-hybridization assay. Anal. Biochem. 2003, 312, 191-200.
45. Kumar, M.; Zhang, P. Highly sensitive and selective label-free optical detection of DNA hybridization based on photon upconverting nanoparticles. Langmuir 2009, 25, 6024-6027.
46. Van de Rijke, F.; Zijlmans, H.; Li, S.; Vail, T.; Raap, A. K.; Niedbala, R. S.; Tanke, H. J. Up-converting phosphor reporters for nucleic acid microarrays. Nat. Biotechnol. 2001, 19, 273-276.
47. Yuan, Y.; Liu, Z. An effective approach to enhanced energy-transfer efficiency from up-converting phosphors and increased assay sensitivity. Chem. Commun. 2012, 48, 7510-7512.
48. Rantanen, T.; Jarvenpaa, M.-L.; Vuojola, J.; Arppe, R.; Kuningas, K.; Soukka, T. Upconverting phosphors in a dual-parameter lret-based hybridization assay. Analyst 2009, 134, 1713-1716.
49. Gu, J. Q.; Shen, J.; Sun, L. D.; Yan, C. H. Resonance energy transfer in steady-state and time-decay fluoro-immunoassays for lanthanide nanoparticles based on biotin and avidin affinity. J. Phys. Chem. C 2008, 112, 6589-6593.
50. Hagan, A. K.; Zuchner, T. Lanthanide-based time-resolved luminescence immunoassays. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2011, 400, 2847-2864.
51. Eliseeva, S. V.; Bünzli, J. C. G. Lanthanide luminescence for functional materials and bio-sciences. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2010, 39, 189-227.
52. 3 nanocrystals for time-resolved photoluminescent biodetection. Chem. A Eur. J. 2011, 17, 8549-8554.
53. Härmä, H.; Soukka, T.; Lönnberg, S.; Paukkunen, J.; Tarkkinen, P.; Lövgren, T. Zeptomole detection sensitivity of prostate-specific antigen in a rapid microtitre plate assay using time-resolved fluorescence. Luminescence 2000, 15, 351-355.
54. Ye, Z.; Tan, M.; Wang, G.; Yuan, J. Preparation, characterization, and time-resolved fluorometric application of silica-coated terbium(iii) fluorescent nanoparticles. Anal. Chem. 2004, 76, 513-518.
55. Jiang, H.; Wang, G.; Zhang, W.; Liu, X.; Ye, Z.; Jin, D.; Yuan, J.; Liu, Z. Preparation and time-resolved luminescence bioassay application of multicolor luminescent lanthanide nanoparticles. J. Fluorescen. 2010, 20, 321-328.
56. Chen, Y.; Chi, Y.; Wen, H.; Lu, Z. Sensitized luminescent terbium nanoparticles: Preparation and time-resolved fluorescence assay for DNA. Anal. Chem. 2007, 79, 960-965.
57. 4 nanocrystals. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2011, 50, 6306-6310.
58. 4 nanocrystals as potential optical/magnetic multimodal bioprobes. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012, 134, 1323-1330.
59. 2 nanoprobes for time-resolved luminescent biodetection. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2013, 52, 6671-6676.
60. Liu, Y.; Zhou, S.; Tu, D.; Chen, Z.; Huang, M.; Zhu, H.; Ma, E.; Chen, X. Amine-functionalized lanthanide-doped zirconia nanoparticles: Optical spectroscopy, time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer biodetection, and targeted imaging. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012, 134, 15083-15090.
61. Murray, K.; Cao, Y. C.; Ali, S.; Hanley, Q. Lanthanide doped silica nanoparticles applied to multiplexed immunoassays. Analyst 2010, 135, 2132-2138.
62. Kuningas, K.; Rantanen, T.; Ukonaho, T.; Lövgren, T.; Soukka, T. Homogeneous assay technology based on upconverting phosphors. Anal. Chem. 2005, 77, 7348-7355.
63. Weibel, N.; Charbonnière, L. J.; Guardigli, M.; Roda, A.; Ziessel, R. Engineering of highly luminescent lanthanide tags suitable for protein labeling aad time-resolved luminescence imaging. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 4888-4896.
64. Marriott, G.; Heidecker, M.; Diamandis, E. P.; Yan-Marriott, Y. Time-resolved delayed luminescence image microscopy using an europium ion chelate complex. Biophys. J. 1994, 67, 957-965.
65. Phimphivong, S.; Saavedra, S. S. Terbium chelate membrane label for time-resolved, total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy of substrate-adherent cells. Bioconjug. Chem. 1998, 9, 350-357.
66. Vereb, G.; Jares-Erijman, E.; Selvin, P. R.; Jovin, T. M. Temporally and spectrally resolved imaging microscopy of lanthanide chelates. Biophys. J. 1998, 74, 2210-2222.
67. Beeby, A.; Botchway, S. W.; Clarkson, I. M.; Faulkner, S.; Parker, A. W.; Parker, D.; Williams, J. A. G. Luminescence imaging microscopy and lifetime mapping using kinetically stable lanthanide (iii) complexes. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2000, 57, 83-89.
68. Connally, R.; Veal, D.; Piper, J. Time-resolved fluorescence microscopy using an improved europium chelate bhhst for the in situ detection of cryptosporidium and giardia. Microsc. Res. Tech. 2004, 64, 312-322.
69. Hanaoka, K.; Kikuchi, K.; Kobayashi, S.; Nagano, T. Time-resolved long-lived luminescence imaging method employing luminescent lanthanide probes with a new microscopy system. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 13502-13509.
70. Nelson, N.; Sander, D.; Dandin, M.; Prakash, S. B.; Sarje, A.; Abshire, P. Handheld fluorometers for lab-on-a-chip applications. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst. 2009, 3, 97-107.
71. Honghao, J.; Sander, D.; Haas, A.; Abshire, P. A. Contact imaging: Simulation and experiment. IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I Regul. Pap. 2007, 54, 1698-1710.
72. Daivasagaya, D. S.; Yao, L.; Yung, K. Y.; Hajj-Hassan, M.; Cheung, M. C.; Chodavarapu, V. P.; Bright, F. V. Contact CMOS imaging of gaseous oxygen sensor array. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2011, 157, 408-416.
73. Figeys, D.; Pinto, D. Lab-on-a-chip: A revolution in biological and medical sciences. Anal. Chem. 2000, 72, 330A-335A.
74. Eltoukhy, H.; Salama, K.; Gamal, A. E. A 0. 18-μm CMOS bioluminescence detection lab-on-chip. IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits 2006, 41, 651-661.
75. Mazurczyk, R.; Vieillard, J.; Bouchard, A.; Hannes, B.; Krawczyk, S. A novel concept of the integrated fluorescence detection system and its application in a lab-on-a-chip microdevice. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2006, 118, 11-19.
76. Ahn, C. H.; Choi, J. W.; Beaucage, G.; Nevin, J. H.; Lee, J. B.; Puntambekar, A.; Lee, J. Y. Disposable smart lab on a chip for point-of-care clinical diagnostics. Proc. IEEE 2004, 92, 154-173.
77. Richard, C.; Renaudin, A.; Aimez, V.; Charette, P. G. An integrated hybrid interference and absorption filter for fluorescence detection in lab-on-a-chip devices. Lab Chip Miniat. Chem. Biol. 2009, 9, 1371-1376.
78. Ho, D.; Noor, M. O.; Krull, U. J.; Gulak, G.; Genov, R. CMOS tunable-color image sensor with dual-adc shot-noise-aware dynamic range extension. IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I Regul. Pap. 2013, 60, 2116-2129.
79. Singh, R. R.; Ho, D.; Nilchi, A.; Gulak, G.; Yau, P.; Genov, R. A CMOS/thin-film fluorescence contact imaging microsystem for DNA analysis. IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I Regul. Pap. 2010, 57, 1029-1038.
80. Kong, S. H.; Wijngaards, D. D. L.; Wolffenbuttel, R. F. Infrared micro-spectrometer based on a diffraction grating. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2001, 92, 88-95.
81. Correia, J. H.; De Graaf, G.; Bartek, M.; Wolffenbuttel, R. F. A single-chip CMOS optical microspectrometer with light-to-frequency converter and bus interface. IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits 2002, 37, 1344-1347.
82. Fang, X.; Hsiao, V. K. S.; Chodavarapu, V. P.; Titus, A. H.; Cartwright, A. N. Colorimetric porous photonic bandgap sensors with integrated CMOS color detectors. IEEE Sens. J. 2006, 6, 661-666.
83. Maruyama, Y.; Sawada, K.; Takao, H.; Ishida, M. A novel filterless fluorescence detection sensor for DNA analysis. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 2006, 53, 553-558.
84. Berner, R.; Delbruck, T. Event-based pixel sensitive to changes of color and brightness. IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I Regul. Pap. 2011, 58, 1581-1590.
85. Fasnacht, D. B.; Delbruck, T. Dichromatic spectral measurement circuit in vanilla CMOS. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, New Orleans, LA, USA, 27-30 May 2007; pp. 3091-3094.
86. Richard, C.; Courcier, T.; Pittet, P.; Martel, S.; Ouellet, L.; Lu, G. N.; Aimez, V.; Charette, P. G. Cmos buried quad p-n junction photodetector for multi-wavelength analysis. Opt. Express 2012, 20, 2053-2061.
87. Hubel, P. M.; Liu, J.; Guttosch, R. J. Spatial frequency response of color image sensors: Bayer color filters and foveon X3. Proc. SPIE 2004, 5301, 402-407.
88. Ishii, H.; Maruyama, Y.; Takao, H.; Ishida, M.; Sawada, K. Improvement in filter-less fluorescence sensor capability by optimization of potential distribution. In Proceedings of the 4th Asia-Pacific Conference on Transducers and Micro-Nano Technology, Tainan, Taiwan, 22-25 June 2008; pp. 68-71.
89. Ho, D.; Gulak, G.; Genov, R. CMOS field-modulated color sensor. In Proceedings of the Custom Integrated Circuits Conference, San Jose, CA, USA, 19-21 September 2011.
90. Ho, D.; Noor, M. O.; Krull, U. J.; Gulak, G.; Genov, R. CMOS tunable-wavelength multi-color photogate sensor. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst. 2013, 7, 805-819.
91. Ho, D.; Noor, M. O.; Krull, U. J.; Gulak, G.; Genov, R. Single-filter multi-color CMOS fluorescent contact sensing microsystem. In Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Soeul, South Korea, 20-23 May 2012; pp. 2393-2396.
92. Ho, D.; Noor, M. O.; Krull, U. J.; Gulak, G.; Genov, R. CMOS spectrally-multiplexed Fret-on-a-Chip for DNA analysis. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst. 2013, 7, 643-654.
93. Diamandis, E. P. Immunoassays with time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy: Principles and applications. Clin. Biochem. 1988, 21, 139-150.
94. Tyndall, D.; Rae, B.; Li, D.; Richardson, J.; Arlt, J.; Henderson, R. A 100 Mphoton/s time-resolved mini-silicon photomultiplier with on-chip fluorescence lifetime estimation in 0. 13 μm CMOS imaging technology, Digest of Technical Papers. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA, 19-23 Febuary 2012; pp. 122-123.
95. Guo, J.; Sonkusale, S. A 65 nm CMOS digital phase imager for time-resolved fluorescence imaging. IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits 2012, 47, 1731-1742.
96. Li, Z.; Kawahito, S.; Yasutomi, K.; Kagawa, K.; Ukon, J.; Hashimoto, M.; Niioka, H. A time-resolved CMOS image sensor with draining-only modulation pixels for fluorescence lifetime imaging. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 2012, 59, 2715-2722.
97. Niclass, C.; Favi, C.; Kluter, T.; Gersbach, M.; Charbon, E. A 128 × 128 single-photon image sensor with column-level 10-bit time-to-digital converter array. IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits 2008, 43, 2977-2989.
98. Yoon, H. J.; Itoh, S.; Kawahito, S. A CMOS image sensor with in-pixel two-stage charge transfer for fluorescence lifetime imaging. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 2009, 56, 214-221.
99. Tyndall, D.; Rae, B. R.; Li, D. D. U.; Arlt, J.; Johnston, A.; Richardson, J. A.; Henderson, R. K. A high-throughput time-resolved mini-silicon photomultiplier with embedded fluorescence lifetime estimation in 0. 13 μm CMOS. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst. 2012, 6, 562-570.
100. Rae, B. R.; Yang, J.; McKendry, J.; Gong, Z.; Renshaw, D.; Girkin, J. M.; Gu, E.; Dawson, M. D.; Henderson, R. K. A vertically integrated CMOS microsystem for time-resolved fluorescence analysis. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circuits Syst. 2010, 4, 437-444.
101. Stoppa, D.; Mosconi, D.; Pancheri, L.; Gonzo, L. Single-photon avalanche diode CMOS sensor for time-resolved fluorescence measurements. IEEE Sens. J. 2009, 9, 1084-1090.
102. Huang, T. C. D.; Sorgenfrei, S.; Gong, P.; Levicky, R.; Shepard, K. L. A 0. 18-μm CMOS array sensor for integrated time-resolved fluorescence detection. IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits 2009, 44, 1644-1654.
103. Gersbach, M.; Maruyama, Y.; Trimananda, R.; Fishburn, M. W.; Stoppa, D.; Richardson, J. A.; Walker, R.; Henderson, R.; Charbon, E. A time-resolved, low-noise single-photon image sensor fabricated in deep-submicron CMOS technology. IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits 2012, 47, 1394-1407.
104. Pancheri, L.; Massari, N.; Stoppa, D. Spad image sensor with analog counting pixel for time-resolved fluorescence detection. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 2013, 60, 3442-3449.