Hypoxia and resistance exercise: A comparison of localized and systemic methods

Sports Medicine

Volumn 44, Issue 8, 2014, Pages 1037-1054

  Scott, Brendan R ^a   Slattery, Katie M ^a,b   Sculley, Dean V ^c   Dascombe, Ben J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEWCASTLE   (Australia)

^b New South Wales Institute of Sport   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF NEWCASTLE   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HORMONE;

ADAPTATION; ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY; ANOXIA; BLOOD FLOW; ENERGY METABOLISM; EXERCISE; HUMAN; METABOLISM; MUSCLE CELL; MUSCLE STRENGTH; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERCEPTION; PHYSIOLOGY; PROCEDURES; RESISTANCE TRAINING; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SKELETAL MUSCLE; VASCULARIZATION;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; ANOXIA; ENERGY METABOLISM; EXERCISE; HORMONES; HUMANS; MUSCLE CELLS; MUSCLE FIBERS, SKELETAL; MUSCLE STRENGTH; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; PERCEPTION; REGIONAL BLOOD FLOW; RESISTANCE TRAINING; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 84904810457     PISSN: 01121642     EISSN: 11792035     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s40279-014-0177-7     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Kraemer WJ, Fleck SJ, Evans WJ. Strength and power training: physiological mechanisms of adaptation. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1996;24:363-97.
2. Bird SP, Tarpenning KM, Marino FE. Designing resistance training programmes to enhance muscular fitness: a review of the acute programme variables. Sports Med. 2005;35(10):841-51.
3. Spiering BA, Kraemer WJ, Anderson JM, et al. Resistance exercise biology: manipulation of resistance exercise programme variables determines the responses of cellular and molecular signalling pathways. Sports Med. 2008;38(7):527-40.
4. Gordon SE, Kraemer WJ, Vos NH, et al. Effect of acid-base balance on the growth hormone response to acute high-intensity cycle exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1994;76(2):821-9.
5. Goto K, Ishii N, Kizuka T, et al. The impact of metabolic stress on hormonal responses and muscular adaptations. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37(6):955-63.
6. Hakkinen K, Pakarinen A, Alen M, et al. Neuromuscular and hormonal adaptations in athletes to strength training in two years. J Appl Physiol. 1988;65(6):2406-12.
7. Viru M, Jansson E, Viru A, et al. Effect of restricted blood flow on exercise-induced hormone changes in healthy men. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1998;77(6):517-22.
8. Takarada Y, Nakamura Y, Aruga S, et al. Rapid increase in plasma growth hormone after low-intensity resistance exercise with vascular occlusion. J Appl Physiol. 2000;88(1):61-5.
9. Florini JR, Ewton DZ, Coolican SA. Growth hormone and the insulin-like growth factor system in myogenesis. Endocr Rev. 1996;17(5):481-517.
10. McCall GE, Byrnes WC, Fleck SJ, et al. Acute and chronic hormonal responses to resistance training designed to promote muscle hypertrophy. Can J Appl Physiol. 1999;24(1):96-107.
11. Crewther B, Keogh J, Cronin J, et al. Possible stimuli for strength and power adaptation: acute hormonal responses. Sports Med. 2006;36(3):215-38.
12. Loenneke JP, Fahs CA, Rossow LM, et al. The anabolic benefits of venous blood flow restriction training may be induced by muscle cell swelling. Med Hypotheses. 2012;78(1):151-4.
13. Takarada Y, Takazawa H, Sato Y, et al. Effects of resistance exercise combined with moderate vascular occlusion on muscular function in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2000;88(6):2097-106.
14. Shinohara M, Kouzaki M, Yoshihisa T, et al. Efficacy of tourniquet ischemia for strength training with low resistance. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1998;77(1-2):189-91.
15. Kon M, Ikeda T, Homma T, et al. Effects of acute hypoxia on metabolic and hormonal responses to resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42(7):1279-785.
16. Kon M, Ikeda T, Homma T, et al. Effects of low-intensity resistance exercise under acute systemic hypoxia on hormonal responses. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26(3):611-7.
17. Nishimura A, Sugita M, Kato K, et al. Hypoxia increases muscle hypertrophy induced by resistance training. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2010;5(4):497-508.
18. Takano H, Morita T, Iida H, et al. Hemodynamic and hormonal responses to a short-term low-intensity resistance exercise with the reduction of muscle blood flow. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2005;95(1):65-73.
19. Loenneke JP, Kearney ML, Thrower AD, et al. The acute response of practical occlusion in the knee extensors. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(10):2831-4.
20. Loenneke JP, Pujol TJ. The use of occlusion training to produce muscle hypertrophy. Strength Cond J. 2009;31(3):77-84.
21. Sumide T, Sakuraba K, Sawaki K, et al. Effect of resistance exercise training combined with relatively low vascular occlusion. J Sci Med Sport. 2009;12(1):107-12.
22. Nakajima T, Morita T, Sato Y. Key considerations when conducting KAATSU training. Int J KAATSU Training Res. 2011;7(1):1-6.
23. ACSM. American College of Sports Medicine position stand: progression models in resistance training for healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41(3):687-708.
24. Abe T, Yasuda T, Midorikawa T, et al. Skeletal muscle size and circulating IGF-1 are increased after two weeks of twice daily KAATSU resistance training. Int J KAATSU Training Res. 2005;1(1):6-12.
25. Takarada Y, Sato Y, Ishii N. Effects of resistance exercise combined with vascular occlusion on muscle function in athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2002;86(4):308-14.
26. Takarada Y, Tsuruta T, Ishii N. Cooperative effects of exercise and occlusive stimuli on muscular function in low-intensity resistance exercise with moderate vascular occlusion. Jpn J Physiol. 2004;54(6):585-92.
27. Madarame H, Neya M, Ochi E, et al. Cross-transfer effects of resistance training with blood flow restriction. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40(2):258-63.
28. Kacin A, Strazar K. Frequent low-load ischemic resistance exercise to failure enhances muscle oxygen delivery and endurance capacity. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2011;21(6):e231-41.
29. Manimmanakorn A, Hamlin MJ, Ross JJ, et al. Effects of low-load resistance training combined with blood flow restriction or hypoxia on muscle function and performance in netball athletes. J Sci Med Sport. 2013;16(4):337-42.
30. Abe T, Kawamoto K, Yasuda T, et al. Eight days KAATSU-resistance training improved sprint but not jump performance in collegiate male track and field athletes. Int J KAATSU Training Res. 2005;1(1):19-23.
31. Yamanaka T, Farley RS, Caputo JL. Occlusion training increases muscular strength in division IA football players. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26(9):2523-9.
32. Cook CJ, Kilduff LP, Beaven CM. Three weeks of occlusion training can improve strength and power in trained athletes. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2014;9(1):166-72.
33. Schantz P, Randall-Fox E, Hutchison W, et al. Muscle fibre type distribution, muscle cross-sectional area and maximal voluntary strength in humans. Acta Physiol Scand. 1983;117(2):219-26.
34. Yasuda T, Fujita T, Miyagi Y, et al. Electromyographic responses of arm and chest muscle during bench press exercise with and without KAATSU. Int J KAATSU Training Res. 2006;2(1):15-8.
35. Yasuda T, Brechue WF, Fujita T, et al. Muscle activation during low-intensity muscle contractions with restricted blood flow. J Sports Sci. 2009;27(5):479-89.
36. Moore DR, Burgomaster KA, Schofield LM, et al. Neuromuscular adaptations in human muscle following low intensity resistance training with vascular occlusion. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2004;92(4-5):399-406.
37. Gabriel DA, Kamen G, Frost G. Neural adaptations to resistive exercise: mechanisms and recommendations for training practices. Sports Med. 2006;36(2):133-49.
38. Behm DG. Neuromuscular implications and applications of resistance training. J Strength Cond Res. 1995;9(4):264-74.
39. Cook SB, Murphy BG, Labarbera KE. Neuromuscular function after a bout of low-load blood flow-restricted exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(1):67-74.
40. Manini TM, Clark BC. Blood flow restricted exercise and skeletal muscle health. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2009;37(2):78-85.
41. Wernbom M, Jarrebring R, Andreasson MA, et al. Acute effects of blood flow restriction on muscle activity and endurance during fatiguing dynamic knee extensions at low load. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(8):2389-95.
42. Wernbom M, Augustsson J, Thomee R. Effects of vascular occlusion on muscular endurance in dynamic knee extension exercise at different submaximal loads. J Strength Cond Res. 2006;20(2):372-7.
43. Loenneke JP, Balapur A, Thrower AD, et al. The perceptual responses to occluded exercise. Int J Sports Med. 2011;32(3):181-4.
44. Graham B, Breault MJ, McEwen JA, et al. Occlusion of arterial flow in the extremities at subsystolic pressures through the use of wide tourniquet cuffs. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1993;286:257-61.
45. Crenshaw AG, Hargens AR, Gershuni DH, et al. Wide tourniquet cuffs more effective at lower inflation pressures. Acta Orthop Scand. 1988;59(4):447-51.
46. Schoenfeld BJ. Potential mechanisms for a role of metabolic stress in hypertrophic adaptations to resistance training. Sports Med. 2013;43(3):179-94.
47. Suga T, Okita K, Takada S, et al. Effect of multiple set on intramuscular metabolic stress during low-intensity resistance exercise with blood flow restriction. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2012;112(11):3915-20.
48. Suga T, Okita K, Morita N, et al. Intramuscular metabolism during low-intensity resistance exercise with blood flow restriction. J Appl Physiol. 2009;106(4):1119-24.
49. Takada S, Okita K, Suga T, et al. Low-intensity exercise can increase muscle mass and strength proportionally to enhanced metabolic stress under ischemic conditions. J Appl Physiol. 2012;113(2):199-205.
50. Reeves GV, Kraemer RR, Hollander DB, et al. Comparison of hormone responses following light resistance exercise with partial vascular occlusion and moderately difficult resistance exercise without occlusion. J Appl Physiol. 2006;101(6):1616-22.
51. Fujita S, Abe T, Drummond MJ, et al. Blood flow restriction during low-intensity resistance exercise increases S6K1 phosphorylation and muscle protein synthesis. J Appl Physiol. 2007;103(3):903-10.
52. Pierce JR, Clark BC, Ploutz-Snyder LL, et al. Growth hormone and muscle function responses to skeletal muscle ischemia. J Appl Physiol. 2006;101(6):1588-95.
53. Kawada S. What phenomena do occur in blood flow-restricted muscle? Int J KAATSU Training Res. 2005;1(2):37-44.
54. Schoenfeld BJ. The mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy and their application to resistance training. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(10):2857-72.
55. Patterson SD, Leggate M, Nimmo MA, et al. Circulating hormone and cytokine response to low-load resistance training with blood flow restriction in older men. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2013;113(3):713-9.
56. Kraemer RR, Kilgore JL, Kraemer GR, et al. Growth hormone, IGF-I, and testosterone responses to resistive exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1992;24(12):1346-52.
57. Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA. Hormonal responses and adaptations to resistance exercise and training. Sports Med. 2005;35(4):339-61.
58. Le Roith D, Bondy C, Yakar S, et al. The somatomedin hypothesis: 2001. Endocr Rev. 2001;22(1):53-74.
59. Borst SE, De Hoyos DV, Garzarella L, et al. Effects of resistance training on insulin-like growth factor-1 and IGF binding proteins. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(4):648-53.
60. Marx JO, Ratamess NA, Nindl BC, et al. Low-volume circuit versus high-volume periodized resistance training in women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(4):635-43.
61. Chandler RM, Byrne HK, Patterson JG, et al. Dietary supplements affect the anabolic hormones after weight-training exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1994;76(2):839-45.
62. Kraemer WJ, Marchitelli L, Gordon SE, et al. Hormonal and growth factor responses to heavy resistance exercise protocols. J Appl Physiol. 1990;69(4):1442-50.
63. Durand RJ, Castracane VD, Hollander DB, et al. Hormonal responses from concentric and eccentric muscle contractions. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35(6):937-43.
64. Pope ZK, Willardson JM, Schoenfeld BJ. Exercise and blood flow restriction. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;27(10):2914-26.
65. Kraemer WJ. Neuroendocrine responses to resistance exercise. In: Baechle TR, editor. Essentials of straining training and conditioning. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 2000. p. 91-114.
66. Giustina A, Veldhuis JD. Pathophysiology of the neuroregulation of growth hormone secretion in experimental animals and the human. Endocr Rev. 1998;19(6):717-97.
67. Weltman A, Pritzlaff CJ, Wideman L, et al. Exercise-dependent growth hormone release is linked to markers of heightened central adrenergic outflow. J Appl Physiol. 2000;89(2):629-35.
68. Godfrey RJ, Madgwick Z, Whyte GP. The exercise-induced growth hormone response in athletes. Sports Med. 2003;33(8):599-613.
69. Smilios I, Pilianidis T, Karamouzis M, et al. Hormonal responses after various resistance exercise protocols. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35(4):644-54.
70. Kraemer WJ, Fleck SJ, Callister R, et al. Training responses of plasma beta-endorphin, adrenocorticotropin, and cortisol. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1989;21(2):146-53.
71. West DW, Phillips SM. Anabolic processes in human skeletal muscle: restoring the identities of growth hormone and testosterone. Phys Sportsmed. 2010;38(3):97-104.
72. West DW, Burd NA, Staples AW, et al. Human exercise-mediated skeletal muscle hypertrophy is an intrinsic process. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2010;42(9):1371-5.
73. Nielsen JL, Aagaard P, Bech RD, et al. Proliferation of myogenic stem cells in human skeletal muscle in response to low-load resistance training with blood flow restriction. J Physiol. 2012;590(Pt 17):4351-61.
74. Hornberger TA, Stuppard R, Conley KE, et al. Mechanical stimuli regulate rapamycin-sensitive signalling by a phosphoinositide 3-kinase-, protein kinase B- and growth factor-independent mechanism. Biochem J. 2004;380(Pt 3):795-804.
75. Wang X, Proud CG. The mTOR pathway in the control of protein synthesis. Physiology (Bethesda). 2006;21:362-9.
76. Bodine SC, Stitt TN, Gonzalez M, et al. Akt/mTOR pathway is a crucial regulator of skeletal muscle hypertrophy and can prevent muscle atrophy in vivo. Nat Cell Biol. 2001;3(11):1014-9.
77. Fry CS, Glynn EL, Drummond MJ, et al. Blood flow restriction exercise stimulates mTORC1 signaling and muscle protein synthesis in older men. J Appl Physiol. 2010;108(5):1199-209.
78. Wernbom M, Apro W, Paulsen G, et al. Acute low-load resistance exercise with and without blood flow restriction increased protein signalling and number of satellite cells in human skeletal muscle. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2013;113(12):2953-65.
79. Wernbom M, Augustsson J, Raastad T. Ischemic strength training: a low-load alternative to heavy resistance exercise? Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2008;18(4):401-16.
80. Thannickal VJ, Fanburg BL. Reactive oxygen species in cell signaling. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2000;279(6):L1005-28.
81. Valko M, Leibfritz D, Moncol J, et al. Free radicals and antioxidants in normal physiological functions and human disease. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2007;39(1):44-84.
82. Suzuki YJ, Ford GD. Redox regulation of signal transduction in cardiac and smooth muscle. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 1999;31(2):345-53.
83. Tamaki T, Uchiyama S, Tamura T, et al. Changes in muscle oxygenation during weight-lifting exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1994;68(6):465-9.
84. Korthuis RJ, Granger DN, Townsley MI, et al. The role of oxygen-derived free radicals in ischemia-induced increases in canine skeletal muscle vascular permeability. Circ Res. 1985;57(4):599-609.
85. Goldfarb AH, Garten RS, Chee PD, et al. Resistance exercise effects on blood glutathione status and plasma protein carbonyls: influence of partial vascular occlusion. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2008;104(5):813-9.
86. Roth SM, Walsh S. Myostatin: a therapeutic target for skeletal muscle wasting. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2004;7(3):259-63.
87. Roth SM, Martel GF, Ferrell RE, et al. Myostatin gene expression is reduced in humans with heavy-resistance strength training: a brief communication. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2003;228(6):706-9.
88. Kim JS, Cross JM, Bamman MM. Impact of resistance loading on myostatin expression and cell cycle regulation in young and older men and women. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2005;288(6):E1110-9.
89. Hulmi JJ, Ahtiainen JP, Kaasalainen T, et al. Postexercise myostatin and activin IIb mRNA levels: effects of strength training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(2):289-97.
90. Petrella JK, Kim JS, Cross JM, et al. Efficacy of myonuclear addition may explain differential myofiber growth among resistance-trained young and older men and women. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2006;291(5):E937-46.
91. Walker KS, Kambadur R, Sharma M, et al. Resistance training alters plasma myostatin but not IGF-1 in healthy men. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36(5):787-93.
92. Drummond MJ, Fujita S, Abe T, et al. Human muscle gene expression following resistance exercise and blood flow restriction. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40(4):691-8.
93. Laurentino GC, Ugrinowitsch C, Roschel H, et al. Strength training with blood flow restriction diminishes myostatin gene expression. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44(3):406-12.
94. Kawada S, Ishii N. Skeletal muscle hypertrophy after chronic restriction of venous blood flow in rats. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37(7):1144-450.
95. Manini TM, Vincent KR, Leeuwenburgh CL, et al. Myogenic and proteolytic mRNA expression following blood flow restricted exercise. Acta Physiol (Oxf). 2011;201(2):255-63.
96. Abe T, Loenneke JP, Fahs CA, et al. Exercise intensity and muscle hypertrophy in blood flow-restricted limbs and non-restricted muscles: a brief review. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging. 2012;32(4):247-52.
97. Fujita T, Brechue W, Kurita K, et al. Increased muscle volume and strength following six days of low-intensity resistance training with restricted muscle blood flow. Int J KAATSU Training Res. 2008;4(1):1-8.
98. Sjogaard G, Adams RP, Saltin B. Water and ion shifts in skeletal muscle of humans with intense dynamic knee extension. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 1985;248(2 Pt 2):R190-6.
99. Lang F, Busch GL, Ritter M, et al. Functional significance of cell volume regulatory mechanisms. Physiol Rev. 1998;78(1):247-306.
100. Dangott B, Schultz E, Mozdziak PE. Dietary creatine monohydrate supplementation increases satellite cell mitotic activity during compensatory hypertrophy. Int J Sports Med. 2000;21(1):13-6.
101. Lang F. Mechanisms and significance of cell volume regulation. J Am Coll Nutr. 2007;26(Suppl 5):613S-23S.
102. Gundermann DM, Fry CS, Dickinson JM, et al. Reactive hyperemia is not responsible for stimulating muscle protein synthesis following blood flow restriction exercise. J Appl Physiol. 2012;112(9):1520-8.
103. Moritani T, Sherman WM, Shibata M, et al. Oxygen availability and motor unit activity in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1992;64(6):552-6.
104. Sundberg CJ. Exercise and training during graded leg ischaemia in healthy man with special reference to effects on skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol Scand Suppl. 1994;615:1-50.
105. Henneman E, Somjen G, Carpenter DO. Functional significance of cell size in spinal motoneurons. J Neurophysiol. 1965;28:560-80.
106. Loenneke JP, Fahs CA, Wilson JM, et al. Blood flow restriction: the metabolite/volume threshold theory. Med Hypotheses. 2011;77(5):748-52.
107. Yasuda T, Abe T, Brechue WF, et al. Venous blood gas and metabolite response to low-intensity muscle contractions with external limb compression. Metabolism. 2010;59(10):1510-9.
108. Rotto DM, Kaufman MP. Effect of metabolic products of muscular contraction on discharge of group III and IV afferents. J Appl Physiol. 1988;64(6):2306-13.
109. Leonard CT, Kane J, Perdaems J, et al. Neural modulation of muscle contractile properties during fatigue: afferent feedback dependence. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1994;93(3):209-17.
110. Abe T. Effects of short-term low-intensity KAATSU training on strength and skeletal muscle size in young men [in Japanese with English abstract]. J Train Sci Exerc Sports. 2004;16:199-207.
111. Yasuda T, Fujita S, Ogasawara R, et al. Effects of low-intensity bench press training with restricted arm muscle blood flow on chest muscle hypertrophy: a pilot study. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging. 2010;30(5):338-43.
112. Yasuda T, Ogasawara R, Sakamaki M, et al. Relationship between limb and trunk muscle hypertrophy following high-intensity resistance training and blood flow-restricted low-intensity resistance training. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging. 2011;31(5):347-51.
113. Meeuwsen T, Hendriksen IJ, Holewijn M. Training-induced increases in sea-level performance are enhanced by acute intermittent hypobaric hypoxia. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2001;84(4):283-90.
114. Bonetti DL, Hopkins WG, Kilding AE. High-intensity kayak performance after adaptation to intermittent hypoxia. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2006;1(3):246-60.
115. Vogt M, Puntschart A, Geiser J, et al. Molecular adaptations in human skeletal muscle to endurance training under simulated hypoxic conditions. J Appl Physiol. 2001;91(1):173-82.
116. Roels B, Thomas C, Bentley DJ, et al. Effects of intermittent hypoxic training on amino and fatty acid oxidative combustion in human permeabilized muscle fibers. J Appl Physiol. 2007;102(1):79-86.
117. Lundby C, Calbet JA, Robach P. The response of human skeletal muscle tissue to hypoxia. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2009;66(22):3615-23.
118. Millet GP, Roels B, Schmitt L, et al. Combining hypoxic methods for peak performance. Sports Med. 2010;40(1):1-25.
119. Pesta D, Hoppel F, Macek C, et al. Similar qualitative and quantitative changes of mitochondrial respiration following strength and endurance training in normoxia and hypoxia in sedentary humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2011;301(4):R1078-87.
120. Friedmann B, Kinscherf R, Borisch S, et al. Effects of low-resistance/high-repetition strength training in hypoxia on muscle structure and gene expression. Pflügers Arch Eur J Physiol. 2003;446(6):742-51.
121. Manimmanakorn A, Manimmanakorn N, Taylor R, et al. Effects of resistance training combined with vascular occlusion or hypoxia on neuromuscular function in athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2013;113(7):1767-74.
122. Issberner U, Reeh PW, Steen KH. Pain due to tissue acidosis: a mechanism for inflammatory and ischemic myalgia? Neurosci Lett. 1996;208(3):191-4.
123. Favier FB, Costes F, Defour A, et al. Downregulation of Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin pathway in skeletal muscle is associated with increased REDD1 expression in response to chronic hypoxia. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2010;298(6):R1659-66.
124. Hayot M, Rodriguez J, Vernus B, et al. Myostatin up-regulation is associated with the skeletal muscle response to hypoxic stimuli. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2011;332(1-2):38-47.
125. MacDougall JD, Green HJ, Sutton JR, et al. Operation Everest II: structural adaptations in skeletal muscle in response to extreme simulated altitude. Acta Physiol Scand. 1991;142(3):421-7.
126. Etheridge T, Atherton PJ, Wilkinson D, et al. Effects of hypoxia on muscle protein synthesis and anabolic signaling at rest and in response to acute resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2011;301(4):697-702.
127. Mason S, Johnson RS. The role of HIF-1 in hypoxic response in the skeletal muscle. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2007;618:229-44.
128. Semenza GL. Regulation of oxygen homeostasis by hypoxia-inducible factor 1. Physiology (Bethesda). 2009;24:97-106.
129. Loenneke JP, Young KC, Fahs CA, et al. Blood flow restriction: rationale for improving bone. Med Hypotheses. 2012;78(4):523-7.
130. Arsic N, Zacchigna S, Zentilin L, et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor stimulates skeletal muscle regeneration in vivo. Mol Ther. 2004;10(5):844-54.
131. Faiss R, Pialoux V, Sartori C, et al. Ventilation, oxidative stress, and nitric oxide in hypobaric versus normobaric hypoxia. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(2):253-60.
132. Anderson JE. A role for nitric oxide in muscle repair: nitric oxide-mediated activation of muscle satellite cells. Mol Biol Cell. 2000;11(5):1859-74.
133. Masiero E, Agatea L, Mammucari C, et al. Autophagy is required to maintain muscle mass. Cell Metab. 2009;10(6):507-15.
134. Sandri M. Autophagy in skeletal muscle. FEBS Lett. 2010;584(7):1411-6.
135. Schiaffino S, Dyar KA, Ciciliot S, et al. Mechanisms regulating skeletal muscle growth and atrophy. FEBS J. 2013;280(17):4294-314.
136. Bigard X. Molecular factors involved in the control of muscle mass during hypoxia-exposure: the main hypotheses are revisited. Acta Physiol (Oxf). 2013;208(3):222-3.
137. Melissa L, MacDougall JD, Tarnopolsky MA, et al. Skeletal muscle adaptations to training under normobaric hypoxic versus normoxic conditions. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997;29(2):238-43.
138. Aravindan N, Williams MT, Riedel BJ, et al. Transcriptional responses of rat skeletal muscle following hypoxia-reoxygenation and near ischaemia-reperfusion. Acta Physiol Scand. 2005;183(4):367-77.
139. Casey DP, Joyner MJ. Compensatory vasodilatation during hypoxic exercise: mechanisms responsible for matching oxygen supply to demand. J Physiol. 2012;590(24):6321-6.
140. Faiss R, Girard O, Millet GP. Advancing hypoxic training in team sports: from intermittent hypoxic training to repeated sprint training in hypoxia. Br J Sports Med. 2013;47(Suppl 1):i45-50.
141. McDonough P, Behnke BJ, Padilla DJ, et al. Control of microvascular oxygen pressures in rat muscles comprised of different fibre types. J Physiol. 2005;563(Pt 3):903-13.
142. Cleland SM, Murias JM, Kowalchuk JM, et al. Effects of prior heavy-intensity exercise on oxygen uptake and muscle deoxygenation kinetics of a subsequent heavy-intensity cycling and knee-extension exercise. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2012;37(1):138-48.
143. Downing SE, Mitchell JH, Wallace AG. Cardiovascular responses to ischemia, hypoxia, and hypercapnia of the central nervous system. Am J Physiol Leg Cont. 1963;204(5):881-7.