Treatment of infectious disease: Beyond antibiotics

Microbiological Research

Volumn 169, Issue 9-10, 2014, Pages 643-651

  Nigam, Anshul ^a   Gupta, Divya ^b   Sharma, Ashwani ^c  

^a PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY   (India)

^b MANGALAYATAN UNIVERSITY   (India)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ERLANGEN NUREMBERG   (Germany)

Author keywords

Bacteriocins; Killing factors; Non antibiotic drugs; Phages; Quorum quenching

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTICS; BACTERIOPHAGES; QUENCHING;

ANTI-BACTERIAL ACTIVITY; ANTI-MICROBIAL; ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS; BACTERIOCINS; INFECTIOUS DISEASE; KILLING FACTORS; MULTIPLE DRUG RESISTANCE; QUORUM QUENCHING;

DISEASES;

DISEASE CONTROL; DRUG RESISTANCE; INFECTIOUS DISEASE;

ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT;

BIOLOGICAL THERAPY; COMMUNICABLE DISEASES; DRUG RESISTANCE; HUMAN; PROCEDURES;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; BIOLOGICAL THERAPY; COMMUNICABLE DISEASES; DRUG RESISTANCE; HUMANS;

EID: 84904766698     PISSN: 09445013     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2014.02.009     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Aasen I.M., Markussen S., et al. Interactions of the bacteriocins sakacin P and nisin with food constituents. Int J Food Microbiol 2003, 87:35-43.
2. Abee T., Rombouts F.M., Hugenholtz J., Guihard G., Letellier L. Mode of action of nisin Z against Listeria monocytogenes Scott A grown at high and low temperatures. Appl Environ Microbiol 1994, 60:1962-1968.
3. Abedon S.T. Bacterial 'immunity' against bacteriophages. Bacteriophage 2012, 2:50-54.
4. Abedon S.T., Cameron T.A. Phage therapy pharmacology. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2010, 11:28-47.
5. Allgaier H., Jung G., Werner R.G., Schneider U., Zahner H. Epidermin: sequencing of a heterodetic tetracyclic 21-peptide amide antibiotic. Eur J Biochem 1986, 160:9-22.
6. Amaral L., Kristiansen J.E. Phenothiazines: an alternative to conventional therapy for the initial management of suspected multidrug resistant tuberculosis. A call for studies. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2000, 14(3):173-176.
7. Andriashvili I.A., Kvachadze L.I., Vashakidze R.P., Adamia R.S., Chanishvili T.G. Molecular mechanisms of DNA protection from restriction endonucleases in Staphylococcus aureus cells. Mol Gen Mikrobiol Virusol 1986, 8:43-45.
8. Barrangou R., Fremaux C., Deveau H., Richards M., Boyaval P., Moineau S., et al. CRISPR provides acquired resistance against viruses in prokaryotes. Science 2007, 315:1709-1712.
9. Bennett J.W., Chung K.T. Alexander Fleming and the discovery of penicillin. Adv Appl Microbiol 2001, 49:163-184.
10. Berger B.B. Resistance mechanisms and Gram positive bacteria. Int J Med Microbiol 2002, 292:27-35.
11. Bierbaum G., Brotz H., Koller K.P., Sahl H.G. Cloning, sequencing and production of the lantibiotic mersacidin. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1995, 127:121-126.
12. Bracci L., Falciani C., Lelli B., Lozzi L., Runci Y., Pini A. Synthetic peptides in the form of dendrimers become resistant to protease activity. J Biol Chem 2003, 278:46590-46595.
13. Brouns S.J.J., Jore M.M., Lundgren M., Westra E.R., Slijkhuis R.J.H., Snijders A.P.L., et al. Small CRISPR RNAs guide antiviral defense in prokaryotes. Science 2008, 321:960-964.
14. Burbulys D., Trach K.A., Hoch J.A. Initiation of sporulation in B. subtilis is controlled by a multicomponent phosphorelay. Cell 1991, 64:545-552.
15. Carnes E.C., Lopez D.M., Donegan N.P., Cheung A., Gresham H., Timmins G.S., et al. Confinement-induced quorum sensing of individual Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Nat Chem Biol 2010, 6:41-45.
16. Cederlund H., Mardh P.A. Antibacterial activities of non-antibiotic drugs. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993, 32:355-365.
17. Chikindas M.L., Garcia-Garcera M.J., Driessen A.J.M., Ledeboer A.M., Nissen-Meyer J., Nes I.F., et al. Pediccin PA-l, a bacteriocin from Pediococcus acidilactici PACl.0, forms hydrophilic pores in the cytoplasmic membrane of target cells. Appl Environ Microbiol 1993, 59:3577-3584.
18. Claverys J.P., Håvarstein L.S. Cannibalism and fratricide. Mechanisms and raisons d'être. Nat Rev Microbiol 2007, 5:219-229.
19. Cleveland J., Montville T.J., Nes I.F., Chikindas M.L. Bacteriocins safe, natural antimicrobials for food preservation. Int J Food Microbiol 2001, 71:1-20.
20. Cotter P.D., Hill C., Roos R.P. Bacteriocins: developing innate immunity for food. Nat Rev Microbiol 2005, 3:777-788.
21. Cotter P.D., Ross R.P., Hill C. Bacteriocins - a viable alternative to antibiotics?. Nat Rev Microbiol 2013, 11:95-105.
22. Crandall A., Montville T.J. Nisin resistance in Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 700302 is a complex phenotype. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:231-237.
23. Czajkowski R., Jafra S. Quenching of acyl-homoserine lactone-dependent quorum sensing by enzymatic disruption of signal molecules. Acta Biochim Pol 2009, 56:1-16.
24. Dancer S.J. The problems with cephalosporins. J Antimicrob Chemother 2001, 48:463-478.
25. Dicks L.M.T., Heunis T.D.J., Staden D.A., Brand A., Noll K.S., Chikindas M.L. Medical and personal care applications of bacteriocins produced by lactic acid bacteria. Prokaryotic antimicrobial peptides 2011, 391-421. Springer, New York. D. Drider, S. Rebuffat (Eds.).
26. Diep D.B., Skaugen M., Salehian Z., Holo H., Nes I.F. Common mechanisms of target cell recognition and immunity for class II bacteriocins. PNAS 2007, 104:2384-2389.
27. Domenico P., Schwartz S., Cunha B.A. Reduction of capsular polysaccharide production in Klebsiella pneumoniae by sodium salicylate. Infect Immun 1989, 57:3778-3782.
28. Dong Y.H., Wang L.H., Zhang L.H. Quorum-quenching microbial infections: mechanisms and implications. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2007, 362:1201-1211.
29. Eaton M.D., Bayne-Jones S. Bacteriophage therapy. Review of the principles and results of the use of bacteriophage in the treatment of infections. J Am Med Assoc 1934, 23:1769-1939.
30. Ellermeier C.D., Hobbs E.C., Gonzalez-Pastor J.E., Losick R. A three-protein signaling pathway governing immunity to a bacterial cannibalism toxin. Cell 2006, 124:549-559.
31. Engelberg-Kulka H., Amitai S., Kolodkin-Gal I., Hazan R. Bacterial programmed cell death and multicellular behavior in bacteria. PLoS Genet 2006, 2:e135.
32. Fawcett P., Eichenberger P., Losick R., Youngman P. The transcriptional profile of early to middle sporulation in Bacillus subtilis. PNAS 2000, 97:8063-8068.
33. Frimodt-Møller N., Monnet D.L., Sørensen T.I. Increased resistance against macrolides. EPI-News Week 2001, 4.
34. Froseth B.R., Herman R.E., McKay L.L. Cloning of nisin resistance determinant and replication origin on 7.6-kilobase EcoRI fragment of pNP40 from Streptococcus lactis subsp. diacetylactis DRC3. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988, 54:2136-2139.
35. Garneau S., Martin N.I., Vederas J.C. Two-peptide bacteriocins produced by lactic acid bacteria. Biochimie 2002, 84:577-592.
36. Gerber H.R., Anton A.H. A bacterial model for the evaluation of barbiturates. Arch Int Pharmacodynam Ther 1974, 212:284-296.
37. Gillor O., Nigro L.M., Riley M.A. Genetically engineered bacteriocins and their potential as the next generation of antimicrobials. Curr Pharm Des 2005, 11:1067-1075.
38. Giunta S., Galeazzi L., Turchetti G., Sampaoli G., Groppa G. In vitro antistreptococcal activity of the potassium-sparing diuretics amiloride and triamterene. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1985, 28:419-420.
39. Giunta S., Galeazzi L., Turchetti G., Sampaoli G., Groppa G. Effect of amiloride on the intracellular sodium and potassium content of intact Streptococcus faecalis cells in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1986, 29:958-959.
40. Giunta S., Pieri C., Groppa G. Amiloride, a diuretic with in vitro antimicrobial activity. Pharmacol Res Commun 1984, 16:821-829.
41. González-Pastor J.E., Hobbs E.C., Losick R. Cannibalism by sporulating bacteria. Science 2003, 301:510-513.
42. Gratia A. Sur un remarquable exempled'antagonisme entre deuxsouches de colibacille. C R Seances Soc Biol 1925, 93:1040-1041.
43. Gravesen A., Ramnath M., Rechinger K.B., Andersen N., Jansch L., Hechard Y., et al. High-level resistance to class IIa bacteriocins is associated with one general mechanism in Listeria monocytogenes. Microbiology 2002, 148:2361-2369.
44. Guder A., Wiedemann I., Sahl H.G. Posttranslationally modified bacteriocins - the lantibiotics. Biopolymers 2000, 55:62-73.
45. Gupta R., Prasad Y. Efficacy of polyvalent bacteriophage P-27/HP to control multidrug resistant Staphylococcus aureus associated with human infections. Curr Microbiol 2011, 62:255-260.
46. Hale C., Zhao P., Olson S., Duff M.O., Graveley B.R., Wells L., et al. RNA-guided RNA cleavage by a CRISPR RNA-Cas protein complex. Cell 2009, 139:945-956.
47. Heinemann J. Do antibiotics maintain antibiotic resistance. Drug Discov Today 2000, 5:195-204.
48. Heng N.C.K., Wescombe P.A., Burton J.P., Jack R.W., Tagg J.R. The diversity of bacteriocins in Gram-positive bacteria. Bacteriocins: ecology and evolution 2007, 45-92. Springer, Berlin. M.A. Riley, M. Chavan (Eds.).
49. Hoffman B.B., Lefkowitz R.J. Adrenergic receptor antagonists. The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics 1990, 221-243. Pergamon Press, New York. 8th edn. G.A. Goodman, T.W. Rall, A.S. Nies, P. Taylor (Eds.).
50. Himber J., Andermann G., Erhart M., Leclerc G., Bouzoubaa M. In vitro potential measurement, anaesthetic and antimicrobial effects as indicators of beta-blocker toxicity of the cornea. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 1985, 7:195-201.
51. Hoang K.V., Stern N.J., Saxton A.M., Xu F., Zeng X., Lin J. Prevalence, development, and molecular mechanisms of bacteriocin resistance in campylobacter. Appl Environ Microbiol 2011, 77(7):2309-2316.
52. Hoang T.T., Schweizer H.P. Characterization of pseudomonas aeruginosa enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase (FabI): a target for the antimicrobial triclosan and its role in acylated homoserine lactone synthesis. J Bacteriol 1999, 181:5489-5497.
53. Hugenholtz J., de Veer G.J.C. Applications of nisin A and Z in dairy technology. Nisin and novel lantibiotics 1991, 440-447. ESCOM Science Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands. G. Jung, H.G. Sahl (Eds.).
54. Ishino Y., Shinagawa H., Makino K., Amemura M., Nakata A. Nucleotide sequence of the iap gene, responsible for alkaline phosphatase isozyme conversion in Escherichia coli, and identification of the gene product. J Bacteriol 1987, 169:5429-5433.
55. Iwahi T., Satoh H., Nakao M., Iwasaki T., Yamazaki T., Kubo K., et al. Lansoprazole, a novel benzimidazole proton pump inhibitor, and its related compounds have selective activity against Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991, 35:490-496.
56. Jack R.W., Tagg J.R., Ray B. Bacteriocins of Gram-positive bacteria. Microbiol Rev 1995, 59:171-200.
57. Jensen E.C., Schrader H.S., Rieland B., Thompson T.L., Lee K.W., Nickerson K.W., et al. Prevalence of broad-host-range lytic bacteriophages of Sphaerotilus natans, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64(2):575-580.
58. Jones G.R.N. Successful cancer therapy with promethazine: the rationale. Med Hypotheses 1996, 46:25-29.
59. Kaatz G.W. Bacterial efflux pump inhibition. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2005, 6:191-198.
60. Kalia V.C. Quorum sensing inhibitors: an overview. Biotechnol Adv 2013, 31:224-245.
61. Kayser F.H. Safety aspects of enterococci from medical point of view. Int J Food Microbiol 2003, 88:255-262.
62. Kellner R., Jung G., Horner T., Zahner H., Schnell N., Entian K.D., et al. Gallidermin: a new lanthionine-containing polypeptide antibiotic. Eur J Biochem 1988, 177:53-59.
63. Klaenhammer T.R. Genetics of bacteriocins produced by lactic acid bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev 1993, 12:39-85.
64. Kristiansen J.E. The antimicrobial activity of psychotropic drugs and stereoisomeric analogues. Dan Med Bull 1990, 37:165-182.
65. Kristiansen J.E. Antimicrobial activity of nonantibiotics. Reports from a congress on the antimicrobial effect of drugs other than antibiotics on bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and other organisms. Copenhagen, May, 1990. Acta Pathol Microbiol Immunol Scand 1992, 100:7-14.
66. Kristiansen J.E., Amaral L. The potential management of resistant infections with non-antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997, 40:319-327.
67. Krueger A.P., Scribner E.J. Bacteriophage therapy II. The bacteriophage: its nature and its therapeutic use. J Am Med Assoc 1941, 19:2160-2277.
68. Kutter E., De Vos D., Gvasalia G., Alavidze E., Gogokhia L., Kuhl S., et al. Phage therapy in clinical practice: treatment of human infections. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2010, 11:69-86.
69. Levy S.B. Antibiotic resistance: consequences of in action. Clin Infect Dis 2001, 33:124-129.
70. Levy S.B., Marshall B. Antibacterial resistance worldwide: causes, challenges and responses. Nat Med 2004, 10:122-129.
71. Lin D., Qu L.J., Gu H., Chen Z.A. A 3.1-kb genomic fragment of Bacillus subtilis encodes the protein inhibiting growth of Xanthomonas oryzae. J Appl Microbiol 2001, 91:1044-1050.
72. Liu W.T., Yang Y.L., Xu Y., Lamsa A., Haste N.M., Yang J.Y., et al. Imaging mass spectrometry of intraspecies metabolic exchange revealed the cannibalistic factors of Bacillus subtilis. PNAS 2010, 107:16286-16290.
73. Livermore D.M. Bacterial resistance: origins, epidemiology and impact. Clin Infect Dis 2003, 36:S11-S23.
74. Livermore D.M. Can better prescribing turn the tide of resistance. Nat Rev Microbiol 2004, 2:73-78.
75. Livermore D.M. The need for new antibiotics. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004, 10:1-9.
76. Loc-Carrillo C., Abedon S.T. Pros and cons of phage therapy. Bacteriophage 2011, 1:111-114.
77. Lohans C.T., Vederas J.C. Development of class IIa bacteriocins as therapeutic agents. Int J Microbiol 2011, 2012:1-13.
78. López D., Vlamakis H., Losick R., Kolter R. Cannibalism enhances biofilm development in Bacillus subtilis. Mol Microbiol 2009, 74:609-618.
79. Lorch A. Bacteriophages. An alternative to antibiotics?. Biotechnol Dev Monitor 1999, 39:14-17.
80. McKay L.L., Baldwin K.A. Conjugative 40-megadalton plasmid in Streptococcus lactis subsp. diacetylactis DRC3 is associated with resistance to nisin and bacteriophage. Appl Environ Microbiol 1984, 47:68-74.
81. Melo L.D.R., Sillankorva S., Ackermann H.W., Kropinski A.M., Azeredo J., Cerca N. Isolation and characterization of a new Staphylococcus epidermidis broad-spectrum bacteriophage. J Gen Virol 2014, 95:506-515.
82. Merril CR, Adhya S, Scholl D. Bacteriophage having multiple host range. US Patent 7,163,818 B2; 2007.
83. Molle V., Fujita M., Jensen S.T., Eichenberger P., González-Pastor J.E., Liu J.S., et al. The Spo0A regulon of Bacillus subtilis. Mol Microbiol 2003, 50:1683-1701.
84. Molnar J., Ran J., Kristiansen J.E., Nakamura M.J. Effects of some tricyclic psychopharmacons and structurally related compounds on motility of Proteus vulgaris. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 1992, 62:319-320.
85. Nakata A., Amemura M., Makino K. Unusual nucleotide arrangement with repeated sequences in the Escherichia coli K-12 chromosome. J Bacteriol 1989, 171:3553-3556.
86. Nakayama K., Takashima K., Ishihara H., Shinomiya T., Kageyama M., Kanaya S., et al. The R-typepyocin of Pseudomonas aeruginosa is related to P2 phage, and the F-type is related to lambda phage. Mol Microbiol 2000, 38:213-231.
87. Nandy S.K., Bapat P.M., Venkatesh K.V. Sporulating bacteria prefers predation to cannibalism in mixed cultures. FEBS Lett 2007, 581:151-156.
88. Naruse N., Tenmyo O., Tomita K., Konishi M., Miyaki T., Kawaguchi H., et al. Lanthiopeptin, a new peptide antibiotic, production, isolation and properties of lanthiopeptin. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 1989, 42:837-845.
89. Nes I.F., Diep D.B., Havarstein L.S., Brurberg M.B., Eijsink V., Holo H. Biosynthesis of bacteriocins in lactic acid bacteria. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 1996, 70:113-128.
90. Nicolau D.P., Marangos M.N., Nightingale C.H., Quintillani R. Experience with a once-daily aminoglycoside program administered to 2,184 adult patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995, 39:650-655.
91. O'Flaherty S., Coffey A., Meaney W., Fitzgerald G.F., Ross R.P. The recombinant phage lysin LysK has a broad spectrum of lytic activity against clinically relevant staphylococci including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2005, 187:7161-7164.
92. O'Sullivan L., Ross R.P., Hill C. Potential of bacteriocin-producing lactic acid bacteria for improvements in food safety and quality. Biochimie 2002, 84:593-604.
93. Pag U., Sahl H.G. Multiple activities in lantibiotics - models for the design of novel antibiotics?. Curr Pharm Des 2002, 8:815-833.
94. Parry M.F., Neu H.C. Effect of N-acetylcysteine on antibiotic activity and bacterial growth in vitro. J Clin Microbiol 1977, 5:58-61.
95. Parsek M.R., Val D.L., Hanzelka B.L., Cronan J.E., Greenberg E.P. Acyl homoserine-lactone quorum-sensing signal generation. PNAS 1999, 96:4360-4365.
96. Pons A.M., Lanneluc I., Cottenceau G., Sable S. New developments in non-post translationally modified microcins. Biochimie 2002, 84:531-537.
97. Pugsley A.P. The ins and outs of colicins. II. Lethal action, immunity and ecological implications. Microbiol Sci 1984, 1:203-205.
98. Ramnath M., Beukes M., Tamura K., Hastings J.W. Absence of a putative mannose-specific phosphotransferase system enzyme IIAB component in a Leucocin A-resistant strain of Listeria monocytogenes, as shown by two-dimensional sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Appl Environ Microbiol 2000, 66:3098-3101.
99. Ryan M.P., Flynn J., Hill C., Ross R.P., Meaney W.J. The natural food grade inhibitor, lacticin 3147, reduced the incidence of mastitis after experimental challenge with Streptococcus dysgalactiae in nonlactating dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 1999, 82:2625-2631.
100. Ryan M.P., Meaney W.J., Ross R.P., Hill C. Evaluation of lacticin 3147 and a teat seal containing this bacteriocin for inhibition of mastitis pathogens. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998, 64:2287-2290.
101. Sablon E., Contreras B., Vandamme E.J. Antimicrobial peptides of lactic acid bacteria: mode of action, genetics and biosynthesis. Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol 2000, 68:21-60.
102. Sahl H.G., Jack R.W., Bierbaum G. Biosynthesis and biological activities of lantibiotics with unique post-translational modifications. Eur J Biochem 1995, 230:827-853.
103. Sahl H.G., Bierbaum G. Lantibiotics: biosynthesis and biological activities of uniquely modified peptides from Gram-positive bacteria. Annu Rev Microbiol 1998, 52:41-79.
104. Scheibel L.W., Colombani P.M., Hess A.D., Aikawa M., Atkinson C.T., Milhous W.K. Calcium and calmodulin antagonists inhibit human malaria parasites (Plasmodium falciparum): implications for drug design. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1987, 84:7310-7314.
105. Severina E., Severin A., Tomasz A. Antibacterial efficacy of nisin against multidrug-resistant Gram-positive pathogens. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998, 41:341-347.
106. Spratt B.G. Resistance to antibiotics mediated by target alterations. Science 1994, 264:388-393.
107. Stevens K.A., Sheldon B.W., Klapes N.A., Klaenhammer T.R. Nisin treatment for the inactivation of Salmonella species and other Gram-negative bacteria. Appl Environ Microbial 1991, 57:3613-3615.
108. Stiles M.E., Hastings J.W. Bacteriocin production by lactic acid bacteria: potential for use in meat preservation. Food Sci Technol 1991, 2:235-263.
109. Skurnik M., Pajunen M., Kiljunen S. Biotechnological challenges of phage therapy. Biotechnol Lett 2007, 29:995-1003.
110. Sulakvelidze A., Alavidze Z., Morris J.G. Bacteriophage therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001, 45:649-659.
111. Summers W.C. Felix d'Herelle and the origins of molecular biology 1999, 230. Yale University Press, New Haven.
112. Takahashi N., Murota H., Sutoh I. Antimicrobial activity of topical beta-adrenergic blocking agents. Ophthalmic Res 1983, 15:277-279.
113. Tam J.P., Lu Y., Yang J. Antimicrobial dendrimeric peptides. Eur J Biochem 2002, 269:923-932.
114. Tolinački M., Kojic M., Lozo J., Terzić-Vidojević A., Topisirović L., Fira D. characterization of the bacteriocin-producing strain lactobacillus paracasei subsp. paracasei bgub9. Arch Biol Sci 2010, 62:889-899.
115. Tyski S. Non-antibiotics-drugs with additional antimicrobial activity. Acta Pol Pharm 2003, 60:401-404.
116. Van Bambeke F., Glupczynski Y., Plesiat P., Pecheré J.C., Tulkens P.M. Antibiotic efflux pumps in prokaryotic cells:occurrence, impact on resistance and strategies for the future of antimicrobial therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003, 51:1055-1065.
117. Walsh C. Molecular mechanisms that confer antibacterial drug resistance. Nature 2000, 406:775-781.
118. Williams J.D. The Garrod lecture. Selective toxicity and concordant pharmacodynamics of antibiotics and other drugs. J Antimicrob Chemother 1995, 35:721-737.
119. Williams P. Quorumsensing: an emerging target for antibacterial chemotherapy?. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2002, 6:257-274.
120. Yorgey P., Lee J., Kordel J., Vivas E., Warner P., Jebaratnam D., et al. Posttranslational modifications in microcin B17 define an additional class of DNA gyrase inhibitor. PNAS 1994, 91:4519-4523.