Natural solution to antibiotic resistance: Bacteriophages 'The Living Drugs'

World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology

Volumn 30, Issue 8, 2014, Pages 2153-2170

  Jassim, Sabah A A ^a   Limoges, Richard G ^a  

^a Applied Bio Research Inc   (Canada)

Author keywords

Antibiotics; Bacteriophage; Biocontrol; Phage reprogramming technology; Phage safety and efficacy; Therapy

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURE; ANIMALS; ANTIBIOTICS; BIOCONTROL; FOOD PROCESSING;

ANIMAL AGRICULTURE; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; BEST PRACTICES; CLINICAL APPLICATION; FARM ANIMALS; PHAGE THERAPY; THERAPY;

BACTERIOPHAGES;

ANIMALIA; BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS);

ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT;

ANIMAL; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; BACTERIOPHAGE; BIOLOGICAL THERAPY; DOMESTIC ANIMAL; FOOD SAFETY; HUMAN; PHYSIOLOGY; PROCEDURES; VETERINARY;

ANIMALS; ANIMALS, DOMESTIC; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; BACTERIOPHAGES; BIOLOGICAL THERAPY; DRUG RESISTANCE, BACTERIAL; FOOD SAFETY; HUMANS;

EID: 84903546431     PISSN: 09593993     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11274-014-1655-7     Document Type: Review

References (172)

1. Abedon ST, Thomas-Abedon C (2010) Phage therapy pharmacology. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 11: 28-47.
2. Abedon ST, Kuhl SJ, Blasdel BG, Kutter EM (2011) Phage treatment of human infections. Bacteriophage 1(2): 66-85.
3. Adamia RS, Matitashvili EA, Kvachadze LI, Korinteli VI et al (1990) The virulent bacteriophage IRA of Salmonella typhimurium: cloning of phage genes which are potentially lethal for the host cell. J Basic Microbiol 10: 707-716.
4. Alisky J, Iczkowski K, Rapoport A, Troitsky N (1998) Bacteriophages show promise as antimicrobial agents. J Infect 36: 5-15.
5. Andriashvili IA, Kvachadze LI, Vashakidze RP, Adamia RS, Chanishvili TG (1986) Molecular mechanisms of DNA protection from restriction endonucleases in Staphylococcus aureus cells. Mol Gen Mikrobiol Virusolol 8: 43-45.
6. Atterbury RJ (2009) Bacteriophage biocontrol in animals and meat products. Microbial Biotechnol 2(6): 601-612.
7. Atterbury RJ, van Bergen MAP, Ortiz F, Lovell MA et al (2007) Bacteriophage therapy to reduce Salmonella colonisation of broiler chickens. Appl Environ Microbiol 73: 4543-4549.
8. Babalova EG, Katsitadze KT, Sakvarelidze LA, Imnaishvili NS et al (1968) Preventive value of dried dysentery bacteriophage. Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol 2: 143-145.
9. Bailey JS (1993) Control of Salmonella and campylobacter in poultry production. A summary of work at Russell Research Center. Poult Sci 72: 1169-1173.
10. Bardina C, Spricigo DA, Cortés P, Llagostera M (2012) Significance of the bacteriophage treatment schedule in reducing salmonella colonization of poultry. Appl Environ Microbiol 78(18): 6600-6607.
11. Barrow PA, Soothill JS (1997) Bacteriophage therapy and prophylaxis: rediscovery and renewed assessment of potential. Trends Genet 5: 268-271.
12. Barrow P, Lovell MA, Berchieri A Jr (1998) Use of lytic bacteriophage for control of experimental Escherichia coli septicemia and meningitis in chickens and calves. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 5: 294-298.
13. Baxa U, Steinbacher S, Miller S, Weintraub A et al (1996) Interactions of phage P22 tails with their cellular receptor, Salmonella O-antigen polysaccharide. Biophys J 71: 2040-2048.
14. Bernhardt TG, Struck DK, Young R (2001a) The lysis protein E of φX174 is a specific inhibitor of the mraY-catalyzed step in peptidoglycan synthesis. J Biol Chem 276: 6093-6097.
15. Bernhardt TG, Wang I-N, Struck DK, Young R (2001b) A protein antibiotic in the phage Qβ virion: diversity in lysis targets. Science 292(5525): 2326-2329.
16. Bhattacharyya SC, Samad SA, Mandal JC, Chatterjee SN (1991) X-ray inactivation, weigle reactivation, and weigle mutagenesis of the lysogenic vibrio kappa phage. Can J Microbiol 37(4): 265-269.
17. Biswas B, Adhya S, Washart P, Paul B et al (2002) Bacteriophage therapy rescues mice bacteremic from a clinical isolate of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Infect Immun 70: 204-210.
18. Blanco M, Devoret R (1973) Repair mechanisms involved in prophage reactivation and UV reactivation of UV-irradiated phage lambda. Mutat Res 17(3): 293-305.
19. Bogovazova GG, Voroshilova NN, Bondarenko VM (1991) The efficacy of Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteriophage in the therapy of experimental Klebsiella infection. Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol 4: 5-8.
20. Bogovazova GG, Voroshilova NN, Bondarenko VM, Gorbatkova GA et al (1992) Immunobiological properties and therapeutic effectiveness of preparations from Klebsiella bacteriophages. Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol 3: 30-33.
21. Borysowski J, Górski A (2008) Is phage therapy acceptable in the immunocompromised host? Int J Infect Dis 12(5): 466-471. doi: 10. 1016/j. ijid. 2008. 01. 006.
22. Brüssow H (2005) Phage therapy: the Escherichia coli experience. Microbiol 151: 2133-2140.
23. Brüssow H (2007) Phage therapy: the western perspective. In: McGrath S, van Sinderen D (eds) Bacteriophage: genetics and microbiology. Caister Academic Press, Norfolk, pp 159-192.
24. Brüssow H, Canchaya C, Hardt W-D (2004) Phages and the evolution of bacterial pathogens: from enomic rearrangements to lysogenic conversion. Microbiol Mol Biol Rew 68(3): 560-602.
25. Buffie C, Jarchum I, Equinda M, Lipuma L et al (2011) Profound alterations of intestinal microbiata following a single dose of clindamycin results in sustained susceptibility to Clostridium difficile-induced colitis. Infect Immun 80: 62-73.
26. Bull J, Levin B, DeRouin T, Walker N, Bloch C (2002) Dynamics of success and failure in phage and antibiotic therapy in experimental infections. BMC Microbiol 2: 35.
27. Cairns BJ, Timms AR, Jansen VAA, Connerton IF, Payne RJH (2009) Quantitative models of in vitro bacteriophage-host dynamics and their application to phage therapy. PLoS Pathog 5(1): e1000253.
28. Campbell A (1988) Phage evolution and speciation. In: Calendar R (ed) The bacteriophages. Plenum Press, New York 1: 1-14.
29. Capparelli R, Nocerino N, Lanzetta R, Silipo A et al (2010) Bacteriophage-resistant Staphylococcus aureus mutant confers broad immunity against Staphylococcal infection in mice. PLoS ONE 5(7): e11720. doi: 10. 1371/journal. pone. 0011720.
30. Carlton RM (1999) Phage therapy: past history and future prospects. Arch Immunol Ther Exp 47(5): 267-274.
31. Casewell M, Friis C, Marco E, McMullin P, Phillips I (2003) The European ban on growth-promoting antibiotics and emerging consequences for human and animal health. J Antimicrob Chemother 52: 159-161.
32. CDC (2013) Vital signs: carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 62(9): 165-170.
33. Chee-Sanford JC, Mackie RI, Koike S, Krapac IG et al (2009) Fate and transport of antibiotic residues and antibiotic resistance genes following land application of manure waste. J Environ Qual 38(3): 1086-1108.
34. Clark JR, March JB (2006) Bacteriophages and biotechnology: vaccines, gene therapy and antibacterials. Trends Biotechnol 24(5): 212-218.
35. Clemans D, Francoeur S, Liggit P, West B (2011) Antibiotic resistance, gene transfer, and water quality patterns observed in waterways near CAFO farms and wastewater treatment facilities. Water Air Soil Pollut 217(1-4): 473-489.
36. CSPI (2008) Fish and shellfish cause most foodborne illness outbreaks. CSPI Publishing Web http://www. foodproductiondaily. com/Safety-Regulation/Fish-and-shellfish-cause-most-foodborne-illness-outbreaks-CSPI. Accessed 26 November 2008.
37. Duckworth DH, Gulig PA (2002) Bacteriophages: potential treatment for bacterial infections. BioDrugs 16: 57-62.
38. Duenas M, Borrebaeck CAK (1995) Novel helper phage design: intergenic region affects the assembly of bacteriophages and the size of antibody libraries. FEMS Microbiol Lett 125: 317-321.
39. Edgar R, Friedman N, Molshanski-Mor S, Qimron U (2012) Reversing bacterial resistance to antibiotics by phage-mediated delivery of dominant sensitive genes. Appl Environ Microbiol 78(3): 744-751.
40. EFSA (2009) The use and mode of action of bacteriophages in food production. EFSA J. 2009: 1076 doi: 10. 2903/j. efsa. 2009. 1076. http://www. efsa. europa. eu/en/scdocs/doc/1076. pdf.
41. Emanuele P (2010) Antibiotic resistance. AAOHN J 58(9): 363-365. doi: 10. 3928/08910162-20100826-03.
42. Endley S, Lu L, Vega E et al (2003) Male-specific coliphages as an additional fecal contamination indicator for screening fresh carrots. J Food Prot 66: 88-93.
43. FAO/OIE/WHO (2003) Expert workshop non-human antimicrobial usage and antimicrobial resistance. Geneva, December 1-5, 2003. WHO Publishing Web http://www. who. int/foodsafety/publications/micro/en/amr. pdf. Accessed 1-5 December 2003.
44. Favrin SJ, Jassim SAA, Griffiths MW (2001) Development and optimization of a novel immunomagnetic separation-bacteriophage assay for the detection of Salmonella enterica Serovar enteritidis in broth. Appl Environ Microbiol 67(1): 217-224.
45. Favrin SJ, Jassim SAA, Griffiths MW (2003) Application of a novel immunomagnetic separation-bacteriophage assay for the detection of Salmonella enteritidis and Escherichia coli O157: H7 in food. Int J Food Microbiol 85: 63-71.
46. Fischer CR, Yoichi M, Unno H, Tanji Y (2004) The coexistence of Escherichia coli serotype O157: H7 and its specific bacteriophage in continuous culture. FEMS Microbiol Lett 241: 171-177.
47. Foley SL, Lynne AM (2008) Food animal-associated Salmonella challenges: pathogenicity and antimicrobial resistance. J Anim Sci 86(14): E173-E187.
48. Foley SL, Lynne AM, Nayak R (2008) Salmonella challenges: prevalence in swine and poultry and potential pathogenicity of such isolates. J Anim Sci 86(14): E149-E162.
49. Frieden T (2013) Antibiotics resistance threats in the United States. CDC Publishing Web http://www. cdc. gov/drugresistance/threat-report-2013/pdf/ar-threats-2013-508. pdf. Accessed 23 April 2013.
50. Friman VP, Hiltunen T, Jalasvuori M, Lindstedt C et al (2011) High temperature and bacteriophages can indirectly select for bacterial pathogenicity in environmental reservoirs. PLoS ONE 6(3): e17651. doi: 10. 1371/journal. pone. 0017651.
51. FSA (2011) Foodborne disease strategy 2010-15: an FSA programme for the reduction of foodborne disease in the UK. Version 1. 0. FDS Publishing Web http://www. food. gov. uk/multimedia/pdfs/fds2015. pdf. Accessed May 2011.
52. Fujiwara A, Fujisawa M, Hamasaki R, Kawasaki T et al (2011) Biocontrol of Ralstonia solanacearum by treatment with lytic bacteriophages. Appl Environ Microbiol 77(12): 4155-4162.
53. Ganguly NK, Arora NK, Chandy SJ, Fairoze MN et al (2011) Rationalizing antibiotic use to limit antibiotic resistance in India. Indian J Med Res 134(3): 281-294.
54. Geller BL, Kraus J, Schell MD, Hornsby MJ (1998) High titer, phage-neutralizing antibodies in bovine colostrum that prevent lytic infection of Lactococcus lactis in fermentations of phage-contaminated milk. J Dairy Sci 81(4): 895-900.
55. Gerber P, Opio C, Steinfeld H (2007) Poultry production and the environment-a review. FAO publishing Web. http://www. fao. org/ag/againfo/home/events/bangkok2007/docs/part2/2_2. pdf.
56. Gill JJ (2008) Modeling of bacteriophage therapy. In: Abedon ST (ed) Bacteriophage ecology: population growth, evolution, and impact of bacterial viruses. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 439-464.
57. Gill JJ (2010) Practical and theoretical considerations for the use of bacteriophages in food systems. In: Sabour PM, Griffiths MW (eds) Bacteriophages in the control of food- and waterborne pathogens. ASM Press, Washington, pp 217-235.
58. Golshahi L, Seed KD, Dennis JJ, Finlay WH (2008) Toward modern inhalational bacteriophage therapy: nebulization of bacteriophages of Burkholderia cepacia. J Aerosol Med Pulm Drug Deliv 21(4): 351-360.
59. Goode D, Allen VM, Barrow PA (2003) Reduction of experimental Salmonella and Campylobacter contamination of chicken skin by application of lytic bacteriophages. Appl Environ Microbiol 69(8): 5032-5036.
60. Goodridge L, Abedon ST (2003) Bacteriophage biocontrol and bioprocessing: application of phage therapy to industry. SIM News 53(6): 254-262.
61. Górski A, Wazna E, Dabrowska BW, Switala-Jelén K, Miedzybrodzki R (2006) Bacteriophage translocation. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 46: 313-319. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1574-695X. 2006. 00044. x.
62. Górski A, Borysowski J, Miedzybrodzki R, Weber-Dabrowska B (2007) Bacteriophages in medicine. In: McGrath S, van Sinderen D (eds) Bacteriophage: genetics and molecular biology. Caister Academic Press, Norfolk, pp 125-158.
63. Górski A, Miedzybrodzki R, Borysowski J, Weber-Dabrowska B et al (2009) Bacteriophage therapy for the treatment of infections. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 10: 766-774.
64. Graham JP, Boland JJ, Silbergeld EK (2007) Growth promoting antibiotics in food animal production: an economic analysis. Public Health Rep 122(1): 79-87.
65. Graham JP, Price LB, Evans SL, Graczyk TK, Silbergeld EK (2009) Antibiotic resistant enterococci and staphylococci isolated from flies collected near confined poultry feeding operations. Sci Total Environ 407(8): 2701-2710.
66. Grandgirard D, Loeffler JM, Fischetti VA, Leib SL (2008) Phage lytic enzyme Cpl-1 for antibacterial therapy in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. J Infect Dis 197: 1519-1522.
67. Gupt PK (2008) Regulation of gene expression in phage lambda. In: Gupt PK (ed) Molecular biology and genetic engineering. Rastogi Publisher, pp 236-244. ISBN 81-7133-719-8.
68. Hagens S, Bläsi U (2003) Genetically modified filamentous phage as bactericidal agents: a pilot study. Lett Appl Microbiol 37(4): 318-323.
69. Harper DR, Kutter E (2009) Bacteriophage: therapeutic uses. Encyclopedia of life sciences. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 1-7.
70. Harrison EM, Paterson GK, Holden MT et al (2013) Whole genome sequencing identifies zoonotic transmission of MRSA isolates with the novel mecA homologue mecC. EMBO Mol Med 5: 509-515.
71. Hawkins C, Harper D, Burch D, Anggård E, Soothill J (2010) Topical treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa otitis of dogs with a bacteriophage mixture: a before/after clinical trial. Vet Microbiol 146(3-4): 309-313.
72. Heller KJ (1992) Molecular interaction between bacteriophage and the Gram-negative cell envelope. Arch Microbiol 158: 235-248.
73. Hibma AM, Jassim SAA, Griffiths MW (1997) Infection and removal of L-forms of Listeria monocytogenes with bred bacteriophage. Int J Food Microbiol 34: 197-207.
74. Horrigan L, Lawrence RS, Walker P (2002) How sustainable agriculture can address the environmental and human health harms of industrial agriculture. Environ Health Perspect 110(5): 445-456.
75. Huff WE, Huff GR, Rath NC, Balog JM, Donoghue AM (2002a) Prevention of Escherichia coli infection in broiler chickens with a bacteriophage aerosol spray. Poult Sci 81(10): 1486-1491.
76. Huff WE, Huff GR, Rath NC, Balog JM et al (2002b) Prevention of Escherichia coli respiratory infection in broiler chickens with bacteriophage (SPR02). Poult Sci 81(4): 437-441.
77. Huff WE, Huff GR, Rath NC, Balog JM, Donoghue AM (2003a) Evaluation of aerosol spray and intramuscular injection of bacteriophage to treat an Escherichia coli respiratory infection. Poult Sci 82(7): 1108-1112.
78. Huff WE, Huff GR, Rath NC, Balog JM, Donoghue AM (2003b) Bacteriophage treatment of a severe Escherichia coli respiratory infection in broiler chickens. Avian Dis 47: 1399-1405.
79. Hughes J (2011) Preserving the lifesaving power of anti-microbial agents. JAMA 305: 1027-1028.
80. Inal JM (2003) Phage therapy: a reappraisal of bacteriophages as antibiotics. Arch Immunol Ther Exp 51: 237-244.
81. Jassim SAA (2005) Novel phyto-anti-HIV drugs: a cause for optimism. Biologist 52(5): 268-272.
82. Jassim SAA, Griffiths MW (2007) Evaluation of a rapid microbial detection method via phage lytic amplification assay coupled with Live/Dead fluorochromic stains. Lett Appl Microbiol 44: 673-678.
83. Jassim SAA, Limoges RG (2013) Impact of external forces on cyanophage-host interactions in aquatic ecosystems. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 29(10): 1751-1762.
84. Jassim SAA, Naji MA (2003) Novel antiviral agents: a medicinal plant perspective. J Appl Microbiol 95(3): 412-427.
85. Jassim SAA, Denyer SP, Stewart GSAB (1995) Selective virus culture. WO/1995/023848. http://patentscope. wipo. int/search/en/WO1995023848.
86. Jassim SAA, Abdulamir AS, Abu Bakar F (2010) Methods for bacteriophage design. WO/2010/064044. http://www. wipo. int/pctdb/en/wo. jsp?WO=2010064044.
87. Jassim SAA, Abdulamir AS, Abu Bakar F (2011) Phage-based limulus amoebocyte lysate assay for rapid detection of bacteria. WO2011/098820A1. http://www. sumobrain. com/patents/wipo/Phage-based-limulus-amoebocyte-lysate/WO2011098820A1. pdf.
88. Jassim SAA, Abdulamir AS, Abu Bakar F (2012) Novel phage-based bio-processing of pathogenic Escherichia coli and its biofilms. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 28: 47-60.
89. Jose S (2010) Antibiotics: a global strategic business report. Global Industry Analysts, Inc. PrWeb http://www. prweb. com/releases/antibiotics/anti_infectives/prweb4688824. htm. Accessed 25 October 2010.
90. Katsunori M (2003) Coevolution of bacteriophage PP01 and Escherichia coli O157: H7 in continuous culture. Appl Environ Microbiol 69: 170-176.
91. Keen EC (2012) Phage therapy: concept to cure. Front Microbiol 3: 238.
92. Khachatourians GG (1998) Agricultural use of antibiotics and the evolution and transfer of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Can Med Assoc J 159: 1129-1136.
93. Kiknadze GP, Gadua MM, Tsereteli EV, Mchedlidze LS, Birkadze TV (1986) Efficiency of preventive treatment by phage preparations of children's hospital salmonellosis. In: Kiknadze GP (ed) Intestinal infections. Sovetskaya Meditsina, Tbilisi, pp 41-44.
94. Kim K, Cha J, Jang E, Klumpp J et al (2008) PEGylation of bacteriophages increases blood circulation time and reduces T-helper type 1 immune response. Microb Biotechnol 1(3): 247-257.
95. Kittler S, Fischer S, Abdulmawjood A, Glünder G, Klein G (2013) Effect of bacteriophage application on Campylobacter jejuni loads in commercial broiler flocks. Appl Environ Microbiol 79(23): 7525-7533.
96. Klumpp J, Loessner MJ (2013) Listeria phages genomes, evolution, and application. Bacteriophage 3(3): e26861. https://www. landesbioscience. com/journals/bacteriophage/2013BACTERIOPHAGE0033R. pdf.
97. Knobler SL, Lemon SM, Najafi M, Burroughs T (2003) The resistance phenomenon in microbes and infectious disease vectors: implications for human health and strategies for containment-workshop summary. National Academies Press, Washington, pp 44-106.
98. Kudva IT, Jelacic S, Tarr PI, Youderian P, Hovde CJ (1999) Bio-control of Escherichia coli O157 with O157-specific bacteriophages. Appl Environ Microbiol 65: 3767-3773.
99. Kurtböke DI, Chen CF, Williams ST (1992) Use of polyvalent phage for reduction of streptomycetes on soil dilution plates. J Appl Bacteriol 72: 103-111.
100. Kutter EM (2005) Phage therapy: bacteriophages as natural, self-limiting antibiotics. In: Pizzorno JE, Murray MT (eds) Textbook of natural medicine. Churchill Livingstone, London, pp 1147-1161.
101. Kutter E (2009) Bacteriophage therapy: past and present. In: Schaecter M (ed) Encyclopedia of microbiology. Elsevier, Oxford, pp 258-266.
102. Kutter E, De Vos D, Gvasalia G, Alavidze Z et al (2010) Phage therapy in clinical practice: treatment of human infections. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 11(1): 69-86.
103. Laanto E, Bamford JKH, Laakso J, Sundberg L-R (2012) Phage-driven loss of virulence in a fish pathogenic bacterium. PLoS ONE 7(12): e53157. doi: 10. 1371/journal. pone. 0053157.
104. Laxminarayan R, Duse A, Wattal C, Zaidi AKM et al (2013) Antibiotic resistance- the need for global solutions. Lancet Infect Dis 13(12): 1057-1098.
105. Levin BR, Bull JJ (2004) Population and evolutionary dynamics of phage therapy. Nat Rev Microbiol 2: 166-173. doi: 10. 1038/nrmicro822.
106. Liljeqvist T, Andresen D, Zuo Y, Weston C (2012) Antibiotic resistance: moving forward to the past. NSW Public Health Bull 23(1-2): 37.
107. Loc-Carrillo C, Abedon ST (2011) Pros and cons of phage therapy. Bacteriophage 1: 111-114. doi: 10. 4161/bact. 1. 2. 14590.
108. Loc-Carrillo C, Atterbury RJ, El-Shibiny A, Connerton PL et al (2005) Bacteriophage therapy to reduce Campylobacter jejuni colonization of broiler chickens. Appl Environ Microbiol 71(11): 6554-6563.
109. Lu L (2004). Autoinducer 2-based quorum sensing response of Escherichia coli to subtherapeutic tetracycline exposure. http://repository. tamu. edu/bitstream/handle/1969. 1/4198/etd-tamu-2004B-FSTC-Lu. pdf?sequence=1.
110. Lu T, Koeris M (2011) The next generation of bacteriophage therapy. Curr Opin Microbiol 14: 524-531.
111. Maloy S, Gardner J (1998) Use of P22 challenge phage to identify protein-nucleic acid binding sites. Tech Tips Online 3(1): 111-119.
112. Maloy S, Youderian P (1996) Genetic approaches for dissecting DNA-protein interactions in vivo. Am Biotechnol Lab 14: 14-16.
113. Manna SK, Brahmane MP, Manna C, Batabyal K, Das R (2006) Occurrence, virulence characteristics and antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli O157 in slaughtered cattle and diarrhoeic calves in West Bengal, India. Lett Appl Microbiol 43: 405-409.
114. Martin R (2004) How ravenous soviet viruses will save the world. Wired Publishing Web http://www. wired. com/wired/archive/11. 10/phages_pr. html.
115. Matinkhoo S, Lynch KH, Dennis JJ, Finlay WH, Vehring R (2011) Spray-dried respirable powders containing bacteriophages for the treatment of pulmonary infections. J Pharm Sci 100(12): 5197-5205.
116. Matsuzaki S, Rashel M, Uchiyama J, Sakurai S et al (2005) Bacteriophage therapy: a revitalized therapy against bacterial infectious diseases. J Infect Chemother 11: 211-219.
117. McIntyre L, Jassim SAA, Griffiths MW (1996) Development of a bacteriophage-mediated ATP bioluminescence detection system for Listeria monocytogenes. In: Abstract of the 83rd annual meeting of IAMFES. June 30-July 3, 1996, Seattle, WA, pp 70.
118. Mellon M, Benbrook C, Benbrook KL (2001) Hogging it: estimates of antimicrobial abuse in livestock. Publishing UCS Web. http://www. ucsusa. org/assets/documents/food_and_agriculture/hog_front. pdf. Accessed 4 July 2004.
119. Merril CR, Biswas B, Carlton R, Jensen NC et al (1996) Long-circulating bacteriophage as antibacterial agents. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 3188-3192.
120. Merril CR, Scholl D, Adhya SL (2003) The prospect for bacteriophage therapy in Western medicine. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2: 489-497.
121. Merril CR, Scholl D, Adhya SL (2006) Phage therapy. In: Calendar R (ed) The bacteriophage. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 725-746.
122. Michod RE, Bernstein H, Nedelcu AM (2008) Adaptive value of sex in microbial pathogens. Infect Genet Evol 8(3): 267-285.
123. Mizoguchi K, Morita M, Fischer CY, Yoichi M et al (2003) Coevolution of bacteriophage PP01 and Escherichia coli O157: H7 in continuous culture. Appl Environ Microbiol 69: 170-176.
124. Nathan C, Goldberg F (2005) The profit problem in antibiotic R&D. Nat Rev Drug Discov 4: 887-891.
125. Nayak R, Kenney PB, Keswani J, Ritz C (2003) Isolation and characterisation of Salmonella in a turkey production facility. Br Poult Sci 44: 192-202.
126. Nelson D, Loomis L, Fischetti VA (2001) Prevention and elimination of upper respiratory colonization of mice by group A streptococci by using a bacteriophage lytic enzyme. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98(7): 4107-4112.
127. Novotny L, Dvorska L, Lorencova A, Beran V, Pavlik I (2004) Fish: a potential source of bacterial pathogens for human beings. Vet Med- Czech 49(9): 343-358.
128. O'Hara A, Shanahan F (2006) The gut flora as a forgotten organ. EMBO Rep 7: 688-693.
129. O'Sullivan D, Coffey A, Fitzgerald GF, Hill C, Ross RP (1998) Design of a phage-insensitive lactococcal dairy starter via sequential transfer of naturally occurring conjugative pPlasmids. Appl Environ Microbiol 64: 4618-4622.
130. Page SW, Gautier P (2012) Use of antimicrobial agents in livestock. Rev Sci Tech Off Int Epiz 31(1): 145-188.
131. Parracho HM, Burrowes BH, Enright MC, McConville ML, Harper DR (2012) The role of regulated clinical trials in the development of bacteriophage therapeutics. J Mol Genet Med 6: 279-286.
132. Payne RJH, Jansen VAA (2003) Pharmacokinetic principles of bacteriophage therapy. Clin Pharmacokinet 42: 315-325. doi: 10. 2165/00003088-200342040-00002.
133. Payne RJH, Phil D, Jansen VAA (2000) Phage therapy: the peculiar kinetics of self-replicating pharmaceuticals. Clin Pharmacol Ther 68: 225-230. doi: 10. 1067/mcp. 2000. 109520.
134. Pelczar MJ, Chan ECS, Krieg NR, Edwards DD, Pelczar MF (1993) Viruses: morphology, classification, replication. In: Pelczar MJ (ed) Microbiology concepts and applications. Mcgraw-Hill College, NY, pp 401-435.
135. Phillips I, Casewell M, Cox T, Groot BD et al (2004) Does the use of antibiotics in food animals pose a risk to human health? a critical review of the published data. J Antimicrob Chemother 53: 28-52.
136. Potera C (2013) Phage renaissance: new hope against antibiotic resistance. Environ Health Perspect 121: 48-53.
137. Rees CE, Loessner MJ (2009) Phage identification of bacteria. In: Goldman E, Green LH (eds) Practical handbook of microbiology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 85-94.
138. Rieder E, Berinstein A, Baxt B, Kangt A, Mason PW (1996) Propagation of an attenuated virus by design: engineering a novel receptor for a noninfectious foot-and-mouth disease virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 10428-10433.
139. Robert JH, Phil PD, Jansen VAA (2000) Phage therapy: the peculiar kinetics of self-replicating pharmaceuticals. Clin Pharmacol Ther 68(3): 225-230.
140. Ryan EM, Gorman SP, Donnelly RF, Gilmore BF (2011) Recent advanced in bacteriophage therapy: how delivery routes, formulation, concentration and timing influence the success of phage therapy. J Pharm Pharmacol 63(10): 1253-1264.
141. Santander J, Robeson J (2007) Phage-resistance of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis and pathogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans is mediated by the lipopolysaccharide. Electron J Biotechnol 10(4): 627-632. doi: 10. 1098/rspb. 2001. 1945.
142. Sapkota AR, Hulet M, Zhang G, McDermott P (2011) Lower prevalence of antibiotic-resistant enterococci on U. S. conventional poultry farms that transitioned to organic practices. Environ Health Perspect 119: 1622-1628.
143. Saunders JR, Allison H, James CE, McCarthy AJ, Sharp R (2001) Phage-mediated transfer of virulence genes. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 76(7): 662-666.
144. Schuch R, Nelson D, Fischetti VA (2002) A bacteriolytic agent that detects and kills Bacillus anthracis. Nature 418(6900): 884-889.
145. Scott E (2003) Food safety and foodborne disease in 21st century homes. Can J Infect Dis 14(5): 277-280.
146. Sillankorva S, Pleteneva E, Shaburova O, Santos S (2010) Salmonella enteritidis bacteriophage candidates for phage therapy of poultry. J Appl Microbiol 108(4): 1175-1186.
147. Sillankorva SM, Oliveira H, Azeredo J (2012) Bacteriophages and their role in food safety. Int J Microbiol 2012: Article ID 863945. doi: 10. 1155/2012/863945.
148. Smith HW, Huggins MB (1982) Successful treatment of experimental Escherichia coli infections in mice using phages: its general superiority over antibiotics. J Gen Microbiol 128: 307-318.
149. Smith HW, Huggins MB (1983) Effectiveness of phages in treating experimental Escherichia coli diarrhoea in calves, piglets and lambs. J Gen Microbiol 129: 2659-2675.
150. Smith HW, Huggins MB, Shaw KM (1987) The control of experimental Escherichia coli diarrhoea in calves by means of bacteriophages. J Gen Microbiol 133(5): 1111-1126.
151. Spits HB (2009) Bacteriophages for improvement of intestinal health in pigs and poultry. Master thesis, Faculty of Medicine, University of Utrecht. http://dspace. library. uu. nl/handle/1874/36365.
152. Stewart GSAB, Jassim SAA, Denyer SP (1993) Engineering microbial bioluminescence and biosensor applications. In: Rapley R, Walker MR (eds) Molecular diagnostics. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, chap. 27, pp 403-423.
153. Stewart GSAB, Jassim SAA, Denyer SP, Newby SP et al (1998) The specific and sensitive detection of bacterial pathogens within 4 h using bacteriophage amplification. J Appl Microbiol 84(5): 777-783.
154. Stokstad ELR, Jukes TH (1949) Further observations on the animal protein factor. Proc Soc Biol Exp Med 73: 523-528.
155. Sulakvelidze A (2011) Safety by nature: potential bacteriophage applications. Microbe 6(3): 122-126.
156. Sulakvelidze A, Barrow P (2005) Phage therapy in animals and agribusiness. In: Kutter E, Sulakvelidze A (eds) Bacteriophages: biology and application. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 335-380.
157. Sulakvelidze A, Kutter E (2005) Bacteriophage therapy in humans. In: Kutter E, Sulakvelidze A (eds) Bacteriophages: biology and application. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 381-436.
158. Sulakvelidze A, Alavidze Z, Morris JG Jr (2001) Bacteriophage therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45(3): 649-659.
159. Tanji Y, Shimada T, Fukudomi H, Miyanaga K et al (2005) Therapeutic use of phage for controlling Escherichia coli O157: H7 in gastrointestinal tract of mice. J Biosci Bioeng 100: 280-287.
160. Tauxe RV (1997) Emerging foodborne diseases: an evolving public health challenge. Emerg Infect Dis 3: 425-434.
161. Topley WWC, Wilson GS (1990) Principles of bacteriology, virology and immunity. B. C. Decker Publisher, London, pp 427-480.
162. US Congress (2011) H. R. 965 (112th): Preservation of antibiotics for medical treatment act of 2011. 112th Congress, 2011-2013. Publishing Govtrack Web. https://www. govtrack. us/congress/bills/112/hr965/text. Accessed 9 March 2011.
163. USFDA (2006) Food additives permitted for direct addition to food for human consumption; bacteriophage preparation. FDA, Washington, DC. Publishing FDA Web. http://www. fda. gov/OHRMS/DOCKETS/98fr/cf0559. pdf. Accessed 3 August 2006.
164. Verheust C, Pauwels K, Mahillon J, Helinski DR, Herman P (2010) Contained use of bacteriophages: risk assessment and biosafety recommendations. Appl Biosaf 15(1): 32-44.
165. Vojtek I, Pirzada ZA, Henriques-Normark B, Mastny M et al (2008) Lysogenic transfer of group A Streptococcus superantigen gene among streptococci. J Infect Dis 197(2): 225-234.
166. Wagenaar JA, van Bergen MA, Mueller MA, Wassenaar TM, Carlton RM (2005) Phage therapy reduces Campylobacter jejuni colonization in broilers. Vet Microbiol 109(3-4): 275-283.
167. Wagner PW, Waldor MK (2002) Bacteriophage control of bacterial virulence. Infect Immun 70(8): 3985-3993.
168. Westwater C, Kasman LM, Schofield DA, Werner PA et al (2003) Use of genetically engineered phage to deliver antimicrobial agents to bacteria: an alternative therapy for treatment of bacterial infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47(4): 1301-1307.
169. Wright A, Hawkins CH, Änggård EE, Harper DR (2009) A controlled clinical trial of a therapeutic bacteriophage preparation in chronic otitis due to antibiotic-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa; a preliminary report of efficacy. Clin Otolaryngol 34(4): 349-357.
170. Yan F, Polk B (2004) Commensal bacteria in the gut: learning who our friends are. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 20: 565-571.
171. Yosef I, Kiro R, Molshanski-Mor S et al (2014) Different approaches for using bacteriophages against antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Bacteriophage 4: e28491.
172. Zhukov-Verezhnikov N, Peremitina L, Berillo E, Komissarov V et al (1978) A study of the therapeutic effect of bacteriophage agents in a complex treatment of supportive surgical diseases. Sov Med 23: 64-66.