Vitiligo - Part 1

Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia

Volumn 89, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 461-470

  Tarlé, Roberto Gomes ^a,b   do Nascimento, Liliane Machado ^a   Mira, Marcelo Távora ^a   de Castro, Caio Cesar Silva ^a,b  

^a PONTIFICAL CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF PARANÁ   (Brazil)

^b Santa Casa de Misericordia de Curitiba   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Autoimmunity; Epidemiology; Genetic association studies; Genetic linkage; Vitiligo

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE; CATALASE; CATECHOLAMINE; COLLAGEN TYPE 4; GAMMA INTERFERON; GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE; GLYCOPROTEIN P 15095; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 17; INTERLEUKIN 8; LANGERIN; MELANIN; NEPHROBLASTOMA OVEREXPRESSED PROTEIN; PHENYLALANINE 4 MONOOXYGENASE; PROTEIN P53; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; TENASCIN; TRANSIENT RECEPTOR POTENTIAL CHANNEL 1; TRANSIENT RECEPTOR POTENTIAL CHANNEL 2; TYROSINE;

AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; AUTOIMMUNITY; BIOCHEMISTRY; CD4+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CD8+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CELL ADHESION; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; CHROMOSOME 7; CHROMOSOME 8; COMT GENE; CYTOTOXIC LYMPHOCYTE; DDR1 GENE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DIZYGOTIC TWINS; GENE; GENE LOCUS; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; GENETICS; HEREDITY; HISTORY OF MEDICINE; HUMAN; LINKAGE ANALYSIS; MELANOCYTE; MELANOMA SKIN CANCER; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); METABOLIC DISORDER; MICROENVIRONMENT; MONOZYGOTIC TWINS; NLRP1 GENE; NON MELANOMA SKIN CANCER; NONHUMAN; ONSET AGE; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PREVALENCE; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PTPN22 GENE; PUVA; REGULATORY T LYMPHOCYTE; REVIEW; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW (TOPIC); SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; VITILIGO; XBP1 GENE;

AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES; GENETIC ASSOCIATION STUDIES; GENETIC LINKAGE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; MELANOCYTES; VITILIGO;

EID: 84902590851     PISSN: 03650596     EISSN: 18064841     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1590/abd1806-4841.20142573     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Sharma L, Bhawan R, Jain RK. Hypoacusis in vitiligo. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 2004;70:162-4.
2. Albert DM, Nordlund JJ, Lerner AB. Ocular abnormalities occurring with vitiligo. Ophthalmology. 1979;86:1145-60.
3. Orecchia G, Marelli MA, Fresa D, Robiolio L. Audiologic disturbances in vitiligo. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1989;21:1317-8.
4. Porter J, Beuf A, Nordlund JJ, Lerner AB. Personal responses of patients to vitiligo: the importance of the patient-physician interaction. Arch Dermatol. 1978;114:1384-5.
5. Porter JR, Beuf AH, Lerner A, Nordlund J. Psychosocial effect of vitiligo: a comparison of vitiligo patients with normal control subjects, with psoriasis patients, and with patients with other pigmentary disorders. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1986;15(2 Pt 1):220-4.
6. Radtke MA, Schafer I, Gajur A, Langenbruch A, Augustin M. Willingness-to-pay and quality of life in patients with vitiligo. Br J Dermatol. 2009;161:134-9.
7. Millington GW, Levell NJ. Vitiligo: the historical curse of depigmentation. Int J Dermatol. 2007;46:990-5.
8. Freilich AR. Tzaraat--biblical leprosy. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1982;6:131-4.
9. Kopera D. Historical aspects and definition of vitiligo. Clin Dermatol. 1997;15:841-3.
10. Majumder PP, Nordlund JJ, Nath SK. Pattern of familial aggregation of vitiligo. Arch Dermatol. 1993;129:994-8.
11. Alkhateeb A, Fain PR, Thody A, Bennett DC, Spritz RA. Epidemiology of vitiligo and associated autoimmune diseases in Caucasian probands and their families. Pigment Cell Res. 2003;16:208-14.
12. Das SK, Majumder PP, Chakraborty R, Majumdar TK, Haldar B. Studies on vitiligo. I. Epidemiological profile in Calcutta, India. Genet Epidemiol. 1985;2:71-8.
13. Silva de Castro CC, do Nascimento LM, Olandoski M, Mira MT. A pattern of association between clinical form of vitiligo and disease-related variables in a Brazilian population. J Dermatol Sci. 2012;65:63-7.
14. Lu T, Gao T, Wang A, Jin Y, Li Q, Li C. Vitiligo prevalence study in Shaanxi Province, China. Int J Dermatol. 2007;46:47-51.
15. Boisseau-Garsaud AM, Garsaud P, Cales-Quist D, Helenon R, Queneherve C, Claire RC. Epidemiology of vitiligo in the French West Indies (Isle of Martinique). Int J Dermatol. 2000;39:18-20.
16. Howitz J, Brodthagen H, Schwartz M, Thomsen K. Prevalence of vitiligo. Epidemiological survey on the Isle of Bornholm, Denmark. Arch Dermatol. 1977;113:47-52.
17. Lerner AB. Vitiligo. J Invest Dermatol. 1959;32(2 Part 2):285-310.
18. Mehta NR, Shah KC, Theodore C, Vyas VP, Patel AB. Epidemiological study of vitiligo in Surat area, South Gujarat. Indian J Med Res. 1973;61:145-54.
19. Calanchini-Postizzi E, Frenk E. Long-term actinic damage in sun-exposed vitiligo and normally pigmented skin. Dermatologica. 1987;174:266-71.
20. Schallreuter KU, Behrens-Williams S, Khaliq TP, Picksley SM, Peters EM, Marles LK, et al. Increased epidermal functioning wild-type p53 expression in vitiligo. Exp Dermatol. 2003;12:268-77.
21. Bakry OA, Hammam MA, Wahed MM. Immunohistochemical detection of P53 and Mdm2 in vitiligo. Indian Dermatol Online J. 2012;3:171-6.
22. Schallreuter KU, Tobin DJ, Panske A. Decreased photodamage and low incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer in 136 sun-exposed caucasian patients with vitiligo. Dermatology. 2002;204:194-201.
23. Le Poole IC, Stennett LS, Bonish BK, Dee L, Robinson JK, Hernandez C, et al. Expansion of vitiligo lesions is associated with reduced epidermal CDw60 expression and increased expression of HLA-DR in perilesional skin. Br J Dermatol. 2003;149:739-48.
24. Hexsel CL, Eide MJ, Johnson CC, Krajenta R, Jacobsen G, Hamzavi I, et al. Incidence of nonmelanoma skin cancer in a cohort of patients with vitiligo. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2009;60:929-33.
25. Teulings HE, Overkamp M, Ceylan E, Nieuweboer-Krobotova L, Bos JD, Nijsten T, et al. Decreased risk of melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancer in patients with vitiligo: a survey among 1307 patients and their partners. Br J Dermatol. 2013;168:162-71.
26. Laberge G, Mailloux CM, Gowan K, Holland P, Bennett DC, Fain PR, et al. Early disease onset and increased risk of other autoimmune diseases in familial generalized vitiligo. Pigment Cell Res. 2005;18:300-5.
27. Rezaei N, Gavalas NG, Weetman AP, Kemp EH. Autoimmunity as an aetiological factor in vitiligo. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2007;21:865-76.
28. Castanet J, Ortonne JP. Pathophysiology of vitiligo. Clin Dermatol. 1997;15:845-51.
29. Morelli JG, Norris DA. Influence of inflammatory mediators and cytokines on human melanocyte function. J Invest Dermatol. 1993;100(2 Suppl):191S-5S.
30. Gauthier Y, Cario Andre M, Taieb A. A critical appraisal of vitiligo etiologic theories. Is melanocyte loss a melanocytorrhagy? Pigment Cell Res. 2003;16:322-32.
31. Dell'anna ML, Picardo M. A review and a new hypothesis for non-immunological pathogenetic mechanisms in vitiligo. Pigment Cell Res. 2006;19:406-11.
32. Huang CL, Nordlund JJ, Boissy R. Vitiligo: a manifestation of apoptosis? Am J Clin Dermatol. 2002;3:301-8.
33. Spritz RA, Gowan K, Bennett DC, Fain PR. Novel vitiligo susceptibility loci on chromosomes 7 (AIS2) and 8 (AIS3), confirmation of SLEV1 on chromosome 17, and their roles in an autoimmune diathesis. Am J Hum Genet. 2004;74:188-91.
34. Chen JJ, Huang W, Gui JP, Yang S, Zhou FS, Xiong QG, et al. A novel linkage to generalized vitiligo on 4q13-q21 identified in a genomewide linkage analysis of Chinese families. Am J Hum Genet. 2005;76:1057-65.
35. Liang Y, Yang S, Zhou Y, Gui J, Ren Y, Chen J, et al. Evidence for Two Susceptibility Loci on Chromosomes 22q12 and 6p21-p22 in Chinese Generalized Vitiligo Families. J Invest Dermatol. 2007;127:2552-7.
36. Jin Y, Mailloux CM, Gowan K, Riccardi SL, LaBerge G, Bennett DC, et al. NALP1 in vitiligo-associated multiple autoimmune disease. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:1216-25.
37. Ren Y, Yang S, Xu S, Gao M, Huang W, Gao T, et al. Genetic variation of promoter sequence modulates XBP1 expression and genetic risk for vitiligo. PLoS Genet. 2009;5:e1000523.
38. Nath SK, Majumder PP, Nordlund JJ. Genetic epidemiology of vitiligo: multilocus recessivity cross-validated. Am J Hum Genet. 1994;55:981-90.
39. Elston RC, Stewart J. A general model for the genetic analysis of pedigree data. Hum Hered. 1971;21:523-42.
40. Arcos-Burgos M, Parodi E, Salgar M, Bedoya E, Builes J, Jaramillo D, et al. Vitiligo: complex segregation and linkage disequilibrium analyses with respect to microsatellite loci spanning the HLA. Hum Genet. 2002;110:334-42.
41. Zhang XJ, Liu JB, Gui JP, Li M, Xiong QG, Wu HB, et al. Characteristics of genetic epidemiology and genetic models for vitiligo. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2004;51:383-90.
42. Lander ES, Schork NJ. Genetic dissection of complex traits. Science. 1994;265(5181):2037-48.
43. Nath SK, Kelly JA, Namjou B, Lam T, Bruner GR, Scofield RH, et al. Evidence for a susceptibility gene, SLEV1, on chromosome 17p13 in families with vitiligo-related systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Hum Genet. 2001;69:1401-6.
44. Alkhateeb A, Stetler GL, Old W, Talbert J, Uhlhorn C, Taylor M, et al. Mapping of an autoimmunity susceptibility locus (AIS1) to chromosome 1p31.3-p32.2. Hum Mol Genet. 2002;11:661-7.
45. Fain PR, Gowan K, LaBerge GS, Alkhateeb A, Stetler GL, Talbert J, et al. A genomewide screen for generalized vitiligo: confirmation of AIS1 on chromosome 1p31 and evidence for additional susceptibility loci. Am J Hum Genet. 2003;72:1560-4.
46. Cordell HJ, Clayton DG. Genetic association studies. Lancet. 2005;366:1121-31.
47. Birlea SA, Jin Y, Bennett DC, Herbstman DM, Wallace MR, McCormack WT, et al. Comprehensive association analysis of candidate genes for generalized vitiligo supports XBP1, FOXP3, and TSLP. J Invest Dermatol. 2011;131:371-81.
48. Casp CB, She JX, McCormack WT. Genetic association of the catalase gene (CAT) with vitiligo susceptibility. Pigment Cell Res. 2002;15:62-6.
49. Liu L, Li C, Gao J, Li K, Zhang R, Wang G, et al. Promoter variant in the catalase gene is associated with vitiligo in Chinese people. J Invest Dermatol. 2010;130:2647-53.
50. Em S, Laddha NC, Chatterjee S, Gani AR, Malek RA, Shah BJ, et al. Association of catalase T/C exon 9 and glutathione peroxidase codon 200 polymorphisms in relation to their activities and oxidative stress with vitiligo susceptibility in Gujarat population. Pigment Cell Res. 2007;20:405-7.
51. Birlea SA, Laberge GS, Procopciuc LM, Fain PR, Spritz RA. CTLA4 and generalized vitiligo: two genetic association studies and a meta-analysis of published data. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2009;22:230-4.
52. Kemp EH, Ajjan RA, Waterman EA, Gawkrodger DJ, Cork MJ, Watson PF, et al. Analysis of a microsatellite polymorphism of the cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 gene in patients with vitiligo. Br J Dermatol. 1999;140:73-8.
53. Deeba F, Syed R, Quareen J, Waheed MA, Jamil K, Rao H. CTLA-4 A49G gene polymorphism is not associated with vitiligo in South Indian population. Indian J Dermatol. 2010;55:29-32.
54. Tastan HB, Akar A, Orkunoglu FE, Arca E, Inal A. Association of HLA class I antigens and HLA class II alleles with vitiligo in a Turkish population. Pigment Cell Res. 2004;17:181-4.
55. Buc M, Fazekasova H, Cechova E, Hegyi E, Kolibasova K, Ferencik S. Occurrence rates of HLA-DRB1, HLA-DQB1, and HLA-DPB1 alleles in patients suffering from vitiligo. Eur J Dermatol. 1998;8:13-5.
56. Wang J, Zhao YM, Wang Y, Xiao Y, Wang YK, Chen HD. [ssociation of HLA class I and II alleles with generalized vitiligo in Chinese Hans in north China]. Zhonghua Yi Xue Yi Chuan Xue Za Zhi. 2007;24:221-3.
57. Singh A, Sharma P, Kar HK, Sharma VK, Tembhre MK, Gupta S, et al. HLA alleles and amino-acid signatures of the peptide-binding pockets of HLA molecules in vitiligo. J Invest Dermatol. 2012;132:124-34.
58. Hu DY, Ren YQ, Zhu KJ, Lv YM, Cheng H, Zhang Z, et al. Comparisons of clinical features of HLA-DRB1*07 positive and negative vitiligo patients in Chinese Han population. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2011;25:1299-303.
59. Jin Y, Birlea SA, Fain PR, Spritz RA. Genetic variations in NALP1 are associated with generalized vitiligo in a Romanian population. J Invest Dermatol. 2007;127:2558-62.
60. Alkhateeb A, Qarqaz F. Genetic association of NALP1 with generalized vitiligo in Jordanian Arabs. Arch Dermatol Res. 2010;302:631-4.
61. Silva de Castro CC, do Nascimento LM, Walker G, Werneck RI, Nogoceke E, Mira MT. Genetic variants of the DDR1 gene are associated with vitiligo in two independent Brazilian population samples. J Invest Dermatol. 2010;130:1813-8.
62. Kim HJ, Uhm YK, Yun JY, Im SH, Yim SV, Chung JH, et al. Association between polymorphisms of discoidin domain receptor tyrosine kinase 1 (DDR1) and nonsegmental vitiligo in the Korean population. Eur J Dermatol. 2010;20:231-2.
63. Ricard AS, Pain C, Daubos A, Ezzedine K, Lamrissi-Garcia I, Bibeyran A, et al. Study of CCN3 (NOV) and DDR1 in normal melanocytes and vitiligo skin. Exp Dermatol. 2012;21:411-6.
64. Reichert-Faria A, Jung JE, Neto VM, de Castro CC, Mira MT, Noronha L. Reduced immunohistochemical expression of Discoidin Domain Receptor 1 (DDR1) in vitiligo skin. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2013;27:1057-9.
65. Birlea SA, Gowan K, Fain PR, Spritz RA. Genome-wide association study of generalized vitiligo in an isolated European founder population identifies SMOC2, in close proximity to IDDM8. J Invest Dermatol. 2010;130:798-803.
66. Jin Y, Birlea SA, Fain PR, Gowan K, Riccardi SL, Holland PJ, et al. Variant of TYR and autoimmunity susceptibility loci in generalized vitiligo. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:1686-97.
67. Quan C, Ren YQ, Xiang LH, Sun LD, Xu AE, Gao XH, et al. Genome-wide association study for vitiligo identifies susceptibility loci at 6q27 and the MHC. Nat Genet. 2010;42:614-8.
68. Tang XF, Zhang Z, Hu DY, Xu AE, Zhou HS, Sun LD, et al. Association analyses identify three susceptibility Loci for vitiligo in the Chinese Han population. J Invest Dermatol. 2013;133:403-10.
69. Sandoval-Cruz M, Garcia-Carrasco M, Sanchez-Porras R, Mendoza-Pinto C, Jimenez-Hernandez M, Munguia-Realpozo P, et al. Immunopathogenesis of vitiligo. Autoimmun Rev. 2011;10:762-5.
70. Schallreuter KU, Bahadoran P, Picardo M, Slominski A, Elassiuty YE, Kemp EH, et al. Vitiligo pathogenesis: autoimmune disease, genetic defect, excessive reactive oxygen species, calcium imbalance, or what else? Exp Dermatol. 2008;17:139-40; discussion 41-60.
71. Clayton R. A double-blind trial of 0-05% clobetasol proprionate in the treatment of vitiligo. Br J Dermatol. 1977;96:71-3.
72. Schallreuter KU, Lemke R, Brandt O, Schwartz R, Westhofen M, Montz R, et al. Vitiligo and other diseases: coexistence or true association? Hamburg study on 321 patients. Dermatology. 1994;188:269-75.
73. British Photodermatology Group guidelines for PUVA. Br J Dermatol. 1994;130:246-55.
74. Kim SM, Lee HS, Hann SK. The efficacy of low-dose oral corticosteroids in the treatment of vitiligo patients. Int J Dermatol. 1999;38:546-50.
75. Radakovic-Fijan S, Furnsinn-Friedl AM, Honigsmann H, Tanew A. Oral dexamethasone pulse treatment for vitiligo. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2001;44:814-7.
76. Cockayne SE, Messenger AG, Gawkrodger DJ. Vitiligo treated with topical corticosteroids: children with head and neck involvement respond well. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2002;46:964-5.
77. Hann SK, Kim HI, Im S, Park YK, Cui J, Bystryn JC. The change of melanocyte cytotoxicity after systemic steroid treatment in vitiligo patients. J Dermatol Sci. 1993;6:201-5.
78. Zhang Z, Xu SX, Zhang FY, Yin XY, Yang S, Xiao FL, et al. The analysis of genetics and associated autoimmune diseases in Chinese vitiligo patients. Arch Dermatol Res. 2009;301:167-73.
79. Vrijman C, Kroon MW, Limpens J, Leeflang MM, Luiten RM, van der Veen JP, et al. The prevalence of thyroid disease in patients with vitiligo: a systematic review. Br J Dermatol. 2012;167:1224-35.
80. Kemp EH, Gawkrodger DJ, Watson PF, Weetman AP. Immunoprecipitation of melanogenic enzyme autoantigens with vitiligo sera: evidence for cross-reactive autoantibodies to tyrosinase and tyrosinase-related protein-2 (TRP-2). Clin Exp Immunol. 1997;109:495-500.
81. Kemp EH, Waterman EA, Gawkrodger DJ, Watson PF, Weetman AP. Autoantibodies to tyrosinase-related protein-1 detected in the sera of vitiligo patients using a quantitative radiobinding assay. Br J Dermatol. 1998;139:798-805.
82. Kemp EH, Waterman EA, Gawkrodger DJ, Watson PF, Weetman AP. Molecular mapping of epitopes on melanocyte-specific protein Pmel17 which are recognized by autoantibodies in patients with vitiligo. Clin Exp Immunol. 2001;124:509-15.
83. Kemp EH, Waterman EA, Hawes BE, O'Neill K, Gottumukkala RV, Gawkrodger DJ, et al. The melanin-concentrating hormone receptor 1, a novel target of autoantibody responses in vitiligo. J Clin Invest. 2002;109:923-30.
84. Okamoto T, Irie RF, Fujii S, Huang SK, Nizze AJ, Morton DL, et al. Anti-tyrosinaserelated protein-2 immune response in vitiligo patients and melanoma patients receiving active-specific immunotherapy. J Invest Dermatol. 1998;111:1034-9.
85. Bystryn JC. Serum antibodies in vitiligo patients. Clin Dermatol. 1989;7:136-45.
86. Le Poole IC, Luiten RM. Autoimmune etiology of generalized vitiligo. Curr Dir Autoimmun. 2008;10:227-43.
87. Steitz J, Bruck J, Lenz J, Buchs S, Tuting T. Peripheral CD8+ T cell tolerance against melanocytic self-antigens in the skin is regulated in two steps by CD4+ T cells and local inflammation: implications for the pathophysiology of vitiligo. J Invest Dermatol. 2005;124:144-50.
88. Oyarbide-Valencia K, van den Boorn JG, Denman CJ, Li M, Carlson JM, Hernandez C, et al. Therapeutic implications of autoimmune vitiligo T cells. Autoimmun Rev. 2006;5:486-92.
89. van den Wijngaard R, Wankowicz-Kalinska A, Le Poole C, Tigges B, Westerhof W, Das P. Local immune response in skin of generalized vitiligo patients. Destruction of melanocytes is associated with the prominent presence of CLA+ T cells at the perilesional site. Lab Invest. 2000;80:1299-309.
90. Le Poole IC, Wankowicz-Kalinska A, van den Wijngaard RM, Nickoloff BJ, Das PK. Autoimmune aspects of depigmentation in vitiligo. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc. 2004;9:68-72.
91. Wang CQ, Cruz-Inigo AE, Fuentes-Duculan J, Moussai D, Gulati N, Sullivan-Whalen M, et al. Th17 cells and activated dendritic cells are increased in vitiligo lesions. PLoS One. 2011;6:e18907.
92. Lang KS, Caroli CC, Muhm A, Wernet D, Moris A, Schittek B, et al. HLA-A2 restricted, melanocyte-specific CD8(+) T lymphocytes detected in vitiligo patients are related to disease activity and are predominantly directed against MelanA/MART1. J Invest Dermatol. 2001;116:891-7.
93. van den Boorn JG, Konijnenberg D, Dellemijn TA, van der Veen JP, Bos JD, Melief CJ, et al. Autoimmune destruction of skin melanocytes by perilesional T cells from vitiligo patients. J Invest Dermatol. 2009;129:2220-32.
94. Nordlund JJ, Kirkwood JM, Forget BM, Milton G, Albert DM, Lerner AB. Vitiligo in patients with metastatic melanoma: a good prognostic sign. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1983;9:689-96.
95. Lengagne R, Le Gal FA, Garcette M, Fiette L, Ave P, Kato M, et al. Spontaneous vitiligo in an animal model for human melanoma: role of tumor-specific CD8+ T cells. Cancer Res. 2004;64:1496-501.
96. Uchi H, Stan R, Turk MJ, Engelhorn ME, Rizzuto GA, Goldberg SM, et al. Unraveling the complex relationship between cancer immunity and autoimmunity: lessons from melanoma and vitiligo. Adv Immunol. 2006;90:215-41.
97. Jacobs JF, Aarntzen EH, Sibelt LA, Blokx WA, Boullart AC, Gerritsen MJ, et al. Vaccine-specific local T cell reactivity in immunotherapy-associated vitiligo in melanoma patients. Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2009;58:145-51.
98. Wankowicz-Kalinska A, Le Poole C, van den Wijngaard R, Storkus WJ, Das PK. Melanocyte-specific immune response in melanoma and vitiligo: two faces of the same coin? Pigment Cell Res. 2003;16:254-60.
99. Das PK, van den Wijngaard RM, Wankowicz-Kalinska A, Le Poole IC. A symbiotic concept of autoimmunity and tumour immunity: lessons from vitiligo. Trends Immunol. 2001;22:130-6.
100. Zhang P, Cote AL, de Vries VC, Usherwood EJ, Turk MJ. Induction of postsurgical tumor immunity and T-cell memory by a poorly immunogenic tumor. Cancer Res. 2007;67:6468-76.
101. Klarquist J, Denman CJ, Hernandez C, Wainwright DA, Strickland FM, Overbeck A, et al. Reduced skin homing by functional Treg in vitiligo. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2010;23:276-86
102. Lili Y, Yi W, Ji Y, Yue S, Weimin S, Ming L. Global activation of CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes correlates with an impairment in regulatory T cells in patients with generalized vitiligo. PLoS One. 2012;7:e37513.
103. Zhou L, Li K, Shi YL, Hamzavi I, Gao TW, Henderson M, et al. Systemic analyses of immunophenotypes of peripheral T cells in non-segmental vitiligo: implication of defective natural killer T cells. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2012;25:602-11.
104. Ben Ahmed M, Zaraa I, Rekik R, Elbeldi-Ferchiou A, Kourda N, Belhadj Hmida N, et al. Functional defects of peripheral regulatory T lymphocytes in patients with progressive vitiligo. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2012;25:99-109.
105. van Geel NA, Mollet IG, De Schepper S, Tjin EP, Vermaelen K, Clark RA, et al. First histopathological and immunophenotypic analysis of early dynamic events in a patient with segmental vitiligo associated with halo nevi. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2010;23:375-84.
106. Toosi S, Orlow SJ, Manga P. Vitiligo-inducing phenols activate the unfolded protein response in melanocytes resulting in upregulation of IL6 and IL8. J Invest Dermatol. 2012;132:2601-9.
107. Wankowicz-Kalinska A, van den Wijngaard RM, Tigges BJ, Westerhof W, Ogg GS, Cerundolo V, et al. Immunopolarization of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells to Type-1-like is associated with melanocyte loss in human vitiligo. Lab Invest. 2003;83:683-95.
108. Birol A, Kisa U, Kurtipek GS, Kara F, Kocak M, Erkek E, et al. Increased tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin 1 alpha (IL1-alpha) levels in the lesional skin of patients with nonsegmental vitiligo. Int J Dermatol. 2006;45:992-3.
109. Moretti S, Spallanzani A, Amato L, Hautmann G, Gallerani I, Fabiani M, et al. New insights into the pathogenesis of vitiligo: imbalance of epidermal cytokines at sites of lesions. Pigment Cell Res. 2002;15:87-92.
110. Khan R, Gupta S, Sharma A. Circulatory levels of T-cell cytokines (interleukin [IL]- 2, IL-4, IL-17, and transforming growth factor-beta) in patients with vitiligo. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012;66:510-1.
111. Njoo MD, Das PK, Bos JD, Westerhof W. Association of the Kobner phenomenon with disease activity and therapeutic responsiveness in vitiligo vulgaris. Arch Dermatol. 1999;135:407-13.
112. Lightner VA, Erickson HP. Binding of hexabrachion (tenascin) to the extracellular matrix and substratum and its effect on cell adhesion. J Cell Sci. 1990;95(Pt 2):263-77.
113. Le Poole IC, van den Wijngaard RM, Westerhof W, Das PK. Tenascin is overexpressed in vitiligo lesional skin and inhibits melanocyte adhesion. Br J Dermatol. 1997;137:171-8.
114. Gauthier Y, Cario-Andre M, Lepreux S, Pain C, Taieb A. Melanocyte detachment after skin friction in non lesional skin of patients with generalized vitiligo. Br J Dermatol. 2003;148:95-101.
115. Fukunaga-Kalabis M, Martinez G, Liu ZJ, Kalabis J, Mrass P, Weninger W, et al. CCN3 controls 3D spatial localization of melanocytes in the human skin through DDR1. J Cell Biol. 2006;175:563-9.
116. Jimbow K, Chen H, Park JS, Thomas PD. Increased sensitivity of melanocytes to oxidative stress and abnormal expression of tyrosinase-related protein in vitiligo. Br J Dermatol. 2001;144:55-65.
117. Schallreuter KU, Moore J, Wood JM, Beazley WD, Gaze DC, Tobin DJ, et al. In vivo and in vitro evidence for hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) accumulation in the epidermis of patients with vitiligo and its successful removal by a UVB-activated pseudocatalase. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc. 1999;4:91-6.
118. Hasse S, Gibbons NC, Rokos H, Marles LK, Schallreuter KU. Perturbed 6-tetrahydrobiopterin recycling via decreased dihydropteridine reductase in vitiligo: more evidence for H2O2 stress. J Invest Dermatol. 2004;122:307-13.
119. Schallreuter KU, Wood JM, Pittelkow MR, Buttner G, Swanson N, Korner C, et al. Increased monoamine oxidase A activity in the epidermis of patients with vitiligo. Arch Dermatol Res. 1996;288:14-8.
120. Schallreuter KU, Wood JM, Pittelkow MR, Gutlich M, Lemke KR, Rodl W, et al. Regulation of melanin biosynthesis in the human epidermis by tetrahydrobiopterin. Science. 1994;263:1444-6.
121. Schallreuter KU, Wood JM, Ziegler I, Lemke KR, Pittelkow MR, Lindsey NJ, et al. Defective tetrahydrobiopterin and catecholamine biosynthesis in the depigmentation disorder vitiligo. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1994;1226:181-92.
122. Maresca V, Roccella M, Roccella F, Camera E, Del Porto G, Passi S, et al. Increased sensitivity to peroxidative agents as a possible pathogenic factor of melanocyte damage in vitiligo. J Invest Dermatol. 1997;109:310-3.
123. Sravani PV, Babu NK, Gopal KV, Rao GR, Rao AR, Moorthy B, et al. Determination of oxidative stress in vitiligo by measuring superoxide dismutase and catalase levels in vitiliginous and non-vitiliginous skin. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 2009;75:268-71.
124. Passi S, Grandinetti M, Maggio F, Stancato A, De Luca C. Epidermal oxidative stress in vitiligo. Pigment Cell Res. 1998;11:81-5.
125. Picardo M, Passi S, Morrone A, Grandinetti M, Di Carlo A, Ippolito F. Antioxidant status in the blood of patients with active vitiligo. Pigment Cell Res. 1994;7:110-5.
126. Yildirim M, Baysal V, Inaloz HS, Kesici D, Delibas N. The role of oxidants and antioxidants in generalized vitiligo. J Dermatol. 2003;30:104-8.
127. Iyengar B. Modulation of melanocytic activity by acetylcholine. Acta Anat (Basel). 1989;136:139-41.
128. Schallreuter KU, Elwary SM, Gibbons NC, Rokos H, Wood JM. Activation/deactivation of acetylcholinesterase by H2O2: more evidence for oxidative stress in vitiligo. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2004;315:502-8.
129. Morrone A, Picardo M, de Luca C, Terminali O, Passi S, Ippolito F. Catecholamines and vitiligo. Pigment Cell Res. 1992;5:65-9.
130. Cucchi ML, Frattini P, Santagostino G, Preda S, Orecchia G. Catecholamines increase in the urine of non-segmental vitiligo especially during its active phase. Pigment Cell Res. 2003;16:111-6.
131. Tursen U, Kaya TI, Erdal ME, Derici E, Gunduz O, Ikizoglu G. Association between catechol-O-methyltransferase polymorphism and vitiligo. Arch Dermatol Res. 2002;294:143-6.
132. Li K, Li C, Gao L, Yang L, Li M, Liu L, et al. A functional single-nucleotide polymorphism in the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene alter vitiligo risk in a Chinese population. Archives of dermatological research. 2009;301:681-7.
133. Canton I, Akhtar S, Gavalas NG, Gawkrodger DJ, Blomhoff A, Watson PF, et al. A single-nucleotide polymorphism in the gene encoding lymphoid protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTPN22) confers susceptibility to generalised vitiligo. Genes Immun. 2005;6:584-7.
134. Laddha NC, Dwivedi M, Shajil EM, Prajapati H, Marfatia YS, Begum R. Association of PTPN22 1858C/T polymorphism with vitiligo susceptibility in Gujarat population. J Dermatol Sci. 2008;49:260-2.
135. Laberge GS, Birlea SA, Fain PR, Spritz RA. The PTPN22-1858C>T (R620W) functional polymorphism is associated with generalized vitiligo in the Romanian population. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. 2008;21:206-8.
136. LaBerge GS, Bennett DC, Fain PR, Spritz RA. PTPN22 is genetically associated with risk of generalized vitiligo, but CTLA4 is not. J Invest Dermatol. 2008;128:1757-62.