Role of magnesium in cardiovascular diseases

Cardiology in Review

Volumn 22, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 182-192

  Kolte, Dhaval ^a   Vijayaraghavan, Krishnaswami ^b   Khera, Sahil ^a   Sica, Domenic A ^c   Frishman, William H ^a  

^a NEW YORK MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

^b HonorHealth and the Scottsdale Lincoln Health Network   (United States)

^c VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

arrhythmia; cardiovascular diseases; hypertension; Magnesium

Indexed keywords

MAGNESIUM; ANTIARRHYTHMIC AGENT; CARDIOVASCULAR AGENT;

ANTIARRHYTHMIC ACTIVITY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE; CORONARY ARTERY ATHEROSCLEROSIS; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART MUSCLE EXCITABILITY; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; MAGNESIUM DEFICIENCY; PATHOGENESIS; REVIEW; SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBER; SUPPLEMENTATION; VASCULAR ENDOTHELIUM; VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE; VASOCONSTRICTION; VASODILATATION; ANIMAL; ARRHYTHMIAS, CARDIAC; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; COMPLICATION; DISEASE MODEL; MYOCARDIAL ISCHEMIA; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY;

ANIMALS; ANTI-ARRHYTHMIA AGENTS; ARRHYTHMIAS, CARDIAC; CARDIOVASCULAR AGENTS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; ENDOTHELIUM, VASCULAR; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMANS; MAGNESIUM; MAGNESIUM DEFICIENCY; MYOCARDIAL ISCHEMIA; MYOCYTES, SMOOTH MUSCLE;

EID: 84902164918     PISSN: 10615377     EISSN: 15384683     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/CRD.0000000000000003     Document Type: Review

References (176)

1. Laurant P, Touyz RM. Physiological and pathophysiological role of magnesium in the cardiovascular system: implications in hypertension. J Hypertens. 2000;18:1177-1191.
2. Champagne CM. Magnesium in hypertension, cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, and other conditions: a review. Nutr Clin Pract. 2008;23:142-151.
3. Singh RB, Singh V P, Cameron EA. Magnesium in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and sudden death. Acta Cardiol. 1981;36:411-429.
4. Sica DA, Frishman WH. Magnesium, potassium, and calcium as cardiovascular disease therapies. In: Frishman WH, Sica DA, eds. Cardiovascular Pharmacotherapeutics. 3rd ed. Minneapolis: Cardiotext Publishing; 2011;177-182.
5. Ross R, Glomset J, Harker L. Response to injury and atherogenesis. Am J Pathol. 1977;86:675-684.
6. Reffelmann T, Ittermann T, Dörr M, et al. Low serum magnesium concentrations predict cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. Atherosclerosis. 2011;219:280-284.
7. Peacock JM, Ohira T, Post W, et al. Serum magnesium and risk of sudden cardiac death in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Am Heart J. 2010;160:464-470.
8. Monarca S, Donato F, Zerbini I, et al. Review of epidemiological studies on drinking water hardness and cardiovascular diseases. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2006;13:495-506.
9. Song Y, Sesso HD, Manson JE, et al. Dietary magnesium intake and risk of incident hypertension among middle-aged and older US women in a 10-year follow-up study. Am J Cardiol. 2006;98:1616-1621.
10. Shechter M. Magnesium and cardiovascular system. Magnes Res. 2010;23:60-72.
11. Martin MT, Shapiro R. Atomic absorption spectrometry of magnesium. Methods Enzymol. 1988;158:365-370.
12. Speich M, Bousquet B, Nicolas G. Reference values for ionized, complexed, and protein-bound plasma magnesium in men and women. Clin Chem. 1981;27:246-248.
13. Romani A, Marfella C, Scarpa A. Cell magnesium transport and homeo-stasis: role of intracellular compartments. Miner Electrolyte Metab. 1993;19:282-289.
14. Romani A. Regulation of magnesium homeostasis and transport in mammalian cells. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2007;458:90-102.
15. Wolf FI, Torsello A, Fasanella S, et al. Cell physiology of magnesium. Mol Aspects Med. 2003;24:11-26.
16. Romani AM, Scarpa A. Regulation of cellular magnesium. Front Biosci. 2000;5:D720-D734.
17. Cefaratti C, Romani AM. Functional characterization of two distinct Mg(2+) extrusion mechanisms in cardiac sarcolemmal vesicles. Mol Cell Biochem. 2007;303:63-72.
18. Romani AM. Magnesium homeostasis in mammalian cells. Front Biosci. 2007;12:308-331.
19. Almulla HA, Bush PG, Steele MG, et al. Loading rat heart myocytes with Mg2+ using low-[Na+] solutions. J Physiol. 2006;575(pt 2):443-454.
20. Romani AM, Maguire ME. Hormonal regulation of Mg2+ transport and homeostasis in eukaryotic cells. Biometals. 2002;15:271-283.
21. Fagan TE, Romani A. Activation of Na(+)-and Ca(2+)-dependent Mg(2+) extrusion by alpha(1)-and beta-adrenergic agonists in rat liver cells. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2000;279:G943-G950.
22. Touyz RM, Schiffrin EL. Angiotensin II and vasopressin modulate intracel-lular free magnesium in vascular smooth muscle cells through Na+-dependent protein kinase C pathways. J Biol Chem. 1996;271:24353-24358.
23. Okada K, Ishikawa S, Saito T. Cellular mechanisms of vasopressin and endo-thelin to mobilize [Mg2+]i in vascular smooth muscle cells. Am J Physiol. 1992;263(4 pt 1):C873-C878.
24. Romani A, Scarpa A. Norepinephrine evokes a marked Mg2+ effux from liver cells. FEBS Lett. 1990;269:37-40.
25. Kolisek M, Zsurka G, Samaj J, et al. Mrs2p is an essential component of the major electrophoretic Mg2+ infux system in mitochondria. EMBO J. 2003;22:1235-1244.
26. Sahni J, Nelson B, Scharenberg AM. SLC41A2 encodes a plasma-membrane Mg2+ transporter. Biochem J. 2007;401:505-513.
27. Goytain A, Quamme GA. Functional characterization of ACDP2 (ancient conserved domain protein), a divalent metal transporter. Physiol Genomics. 2005;22:382-389.
28. Schlingmann K P, Gudermann T. A critical role of TRPM channel-kinase for human magnesium transport. J Physiol. 2005;566(pt 2):301-308.
29. Monteilh-Zoller MK, Hermosura MC, Nadler MJ, et al. TRPM7 provides an ion channel mechanism for cellular entry of trace metal ions. J Gen Physiol. 2003;121:49-60.
30. Simon DB, Lu Y, Choate KA, et al. Paracellin-1, a renal tight junction protein required for paracellular Mg2+ resorption. Science. 1999;285:103-106.
31. Kolisek M, Galaviz-Hernández C, Vázquez-Alaniz F, et al. SLC41A1 is the only magnesium responsive gene signifcantly overexpressed in placentas of preeclamptic women. Hypertens Pregnancy. 2013;32:378-389.
32. Hurd T W, Otto EA, Mishima E, et al. Mutation of the Mg2+ transporter SLC41A1 results in a nephronophthisis-like phenotype. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2013;24:967-977.
33. + exchanger SLC41A1, potentially associated with Parkinson's disease, is a gain-of-function mutation. PLoS One. 2013;8:e71096.
34. Li FY, Lenardo MJ, Chaigne-Delalande B. Loss of MAGT1 abrogates the Mg2+ fux required for T cell signaling and leads to a novel human primary immunodefciency. Magnes Res. 2011;24:S109-S114.
35. Stuiver M, Lainez S, Will C, et al. CNNM2, encoding a basolateral protein required for renal Mg2+ handling, is mutated in dominant hypomagnesemia. Am J Hum Genet. 2011;88:333-343.
36. Schlingmann K P, Weber S, Peters M, et al. Hypomagnesemia with secondary hypocalcemia is caused by mutations in TRPM6, a new member of the TRPM gene family. Nat Genet. 2002;31:166-170.
37. Walder RY, Landau D, Meyer P, et al. Mutation of TRPM6 causes familial hypomagnesemia with secondary hypocalcemia. Nat Genet. 2002;31:171-174.
38. Yue Z, Zhang Y, Xie J, et al. Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels and cardiac fbrosis. Curr Top Med Chem. 2013;13:270-282.
39. Du J, Xie J, Zhang Z, et al. TRPM7-mediated Ca2+ signals confer fbrogenesis in human atrial fbrillation. Circ Res. 2010;106:992-1003.
40. Aarts M, Iihara K, Wei WL, et al. A key role for TRPM7 channels in anoxic neuronal death. Cell. 2003;115:863-877.
41. Sontia B, Touyz RM. Magnesium transport in hypertension. Pathophysiology. 2007;14:205-211.
42. Schweigel M, Martens H. Magnesium transport in the gastrointestinal tract. Front Biosci. 2000;5:D666-D677.
43. Schweigel M, Vormann J, Martens H. Mechanisms of Mg(2+) transport in cultured ruminal epithelial cells. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2000;278:G400-G408.
44. Mitic LL, Van Itallie CM, Anderson JM. Molecular physiology and patho-physiology of tight junctions I. Tight junction structure and function: lessons from mutant animals and proteins. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2000;279:G250-G254.
45. Seelig MS, Rosanoff A. The Magnesium Factor. New York: Avery Trade; 2003.
46. Moshfegh A, Goldman J, Ahuja J, et al. What We Eat in America, NHANES 2005-2006: Usual Nutrient Intakes from Food and Water Compared to 1997 Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D, Calcium, Phosphorus, and Magnesium. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; 2009. Available at: http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/12355000/pdf/0506/ usual-nutri-ent-intake-vitD-ca-phos-mg-2005-06.pdf
47. Bailey RL, Fulgoni VL 3rd, Keast DR, et al. Dietary supplement use is associated with higher intakes of minerals from food sources. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;94:1376-1381.
48. Al-Ghamdi SM, Cameron EC, Sutton RA. Magnesium defciency: pathophysi-ologic and clinical overview. Am J Kidney Dis. 1994;24:737-752.
49. Elisaf M, Panteli K, Theodorou J, et al. Fractional excretion of magnesium in normal subjects and in patients with hypomagnesemia. Magnes Res. 1997;10:315-320.
50. Altura BM, Zhang A, Altura BT. Magnesium, hypertensive vascular diseases, atherogenesis, subcellular compartmentation of Ca2+ and Mg2+ and vascular contractility. Miner Electrolyte Metab. 1993;19:323-336.
51. Vigorito C, Giordano A, Ferraro P, et al. Hemodynamic effects of magnesium sulfate on the normal human heart. Am J Cardiol. 1991;67:1435-1437.
52. Kimura T, Yasue H, Sakaino N, et al. Effects of magnesium on the tone of isolated human coronary arteries. Comparison with diltiazem and nitroglycerin. Circulation. 1989;79:1118-1124.
53. Ram Z, Sadeh M, Shacked I, et al. Magnesium sulfate reverses experimental delayed cerebral vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats. Stroke. 1991;22:922-927.
54. Kelly HG, Cross HC, Turton MR, et al. Renal and cardiovascular effects induced by intravenous infusion of magnesium sulphate. Can Med Assoc J. 1960;82:866-871.
55. Kass RS, Krafte DS. Negative surface charge density near heart calcium channels. Relevance to block by dihydropyridines. J Gen Physiol. 1987;89:629-644.
56. Wilson DL, Morimoto K, Tsuda Y, et al. Interaction between calcium ions and surface charge as it relates to calcium currents. J Membr Biol. 1983;72:117-130.
57. Green WN, Andersen OS. Surface charges and ion channel function. Annu Rev Physiol. 1991;53:341-359.
58. Lansman JB, Hess P, Tsien RW. Blockade of current through single calcium channels by Cd2+, Mg2+, and Ca2+. Voltage and concentration dependence of calcium entry into the pore. J Gen Physiol. 1986;88:321-347.
59. Bara M, Guiet-Bara A. Magnesium regulation of Ca2+ channels in smooth muscle and endothelial cells of human allantochorial placental vessels. Magnes Res. 2001;14:11-18.
60. Serrano JR, Dashti SR, Perez-Reyes E, et al. Mg(2+) block unmasks Ca(2+)/Ba(2+) selectivity of alpha1G T-type calcium channels. Biophys J. 2000;79:3052-3062.
61. Yoshimura M, Oshima T, Matsuura H, et al. Extracellular Mg2+ inhibits capacitative Ca2+ entry in vascular smooth muscle cells. Circulation. 1997;95:2567-2572.
62. Mubagwa K, Gwanyanya A, Zakharov S, et al. Regulation of cation channels in cardiac and smooth muscle cells by intracellular magnesium. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2007;458:73-89.
63. Touyz RM, Laurant P, Schiffrin EL. Effect of magnesium on calcium responses to vasopressin in vascular smooth muscle cells of spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1998;284:998-1005.
64. Chien MM, Cambier JC. Divalent cation regulation of phosphoinositide metabolism. Naturally occurring B lymphoblasts contain a Mg2(+)-regulated phos-phatidylinositol-specifc phospholipase C. J Biol Chem. 1990;265:9201-9207.
65. Volpe P, Alderson-Lang BH, Nickols GA. Regulation of inositol 1, 4, 5-trispho-sphate-induced Ca2+ release. I. Effect of Mg2+. Am J Physiol. 1990;258(6 pt 1):C1077-C1085.
66. Sjögren A, Edvinsson L. The infuence of magnesium on the release of calcium from intracellular depots in vascular smooth muscle cells. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1988;62:17-21.
67. Watson K V, Moldow CF, Ogburn PL, et al. Magnesium sulfate: rationale for its use in preeclampsia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1986;83:1075-1078.
68. Nadler JL, Goodson S, Rude RK. Evidence that prostacyclin mediates the vascular action of magnesium in humans. Hypertension. 1987;9:379-383.
69. Satake K, Lee JD, Shimizu H, et al. Effects of magnesium on prostacyclin synthesis and intracellular free calcium concentration in vascular cells. Magnes Res. 2004;17:20-27.
70. Vaca L, Kunze DL. Depletion of intracellular Ca2+ stores activates a Ca(2+)-selective channel in vascular endothelium. Am J Physiol. 1994;267(4 pt 1):C920-C925.
71. Yoshimura M, Oshima T, Matsuura H, et al. Differential effects of extracellular Mg2+ on thrombin-induced and capacitative Ca2+ entry in human coronary arterial endothelial cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997;17:3356-3361.
72. Maier JA, Bernardini D, Rayssiguier Y, et al. High concentrations of magnesium modulate vascular endothelial cell behaviour in vitro. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2004;1689:6-12.
73. Yang ZW, Gebrewold A, Nowakowski M, et al. Mg(2+)-induced endothelium-dependent relaxation of blood vessels and blood pressure lowering: role of NO. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2000;278:R628-R639.
74. Pearson PJ, Evora PR, Seccombe JF, et al. Hypomagnesemia inhibits nitric oxide release from coronary endothelium: protective role of magnesium infusion after cardiac operations. Ann Thorac Surg. 1998;65:967-972.
75. Joffres MR, Reed DM, Yano K. Relationship of magnesium intake and other dietary factors to blood pressure: the Honolulu heart study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1987;45:469-475.
76. Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Giovannucci EL, et al. A prospective study of nutritional factors and hypertension among US men. Circulation. 1992;86:1475-1484.
77. Ascherio A, Hennekens C, Willett WC, et al. Prospective study of nutritional factors, blood pressure, and hypertension among US women. Hypertension. 1996;27:1065-1072.
78. Harsha DW, Lin PH, Obarzanek E, et al. Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension: a summary of study results. DASH Collaborative Research Group. J Am Diet Assoc. 1999;99(8 suppl):S35-S39.
79. Appel LJ, Moore TJ, Obarzanek E, et al. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:1117-1124.
80. Wu G, Tian H, Han K, et al. Potassium magnesium supplementation for four weeks improves small distal artery compliance and reduces blood pressure in patients with essential hypertension. Clin Exp Hypertens. 2006;28:489-497.
81. Bayir A, Kara H, Ak A, et al. Magnesium sulfate in emergency department patients with hypertension. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2009;128:38-44.
82. Witteman JC, Grobbee DE, Derkx FH, et al. Reduction of blood pressure with oral magnesium supplementation in women with mild to moderate hypertension. Am J Clin Nutr. 1994;60:129-135.
83. Widman L, Wester PO, Stegmayr BK, et al. The dose-dependent reduction in blood pressure through administration of magnesium. A double blind placebo controlled cross-over study. Am J Hypertens. 1993;6:41-45.
84. Itoh K, Kawasaka T, Nakamura M. The effects of high oral magnesium supplementation on blood pressure, serum lipids and related variables in apparently healthy Japanese subjects. Br J Nutr. 1997;78:737-750.
85. Kawasaki T, Itoh K, Kawasaki M. Reduction in blood pressure with a sodium-reduced, potassium-and magnesium-enriched mineral salt in subjects with mild essential hypertension. Hypertens Res. 1998;21:235-243.
86. Yamamoto ME, Applegate WB, Klag MJ, et al. Lack of blood pressure effect with calcium and magnesium supplementation in adults with high-normal blood pressure. Results from Phase I of the Trials of Hypertension Prevention (TOHP). Trials of Hypertension Prevention (TOHP) Collaborative Research Group. Ann Epidemiol. 1995;5:96-107.
87. Jee SH, Miller ER 3rd, Guallar E, et al. The effect of magnesium supplementation on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Am J Hypertens. 2002;15:691-696.
88. Wexler R, Aukerman G. Nonpharmacologic strategies for managing hypertension. Am Fam Physician. 2006;73:1953-1956.
89. Cines DB, Pollak ES, Buck CA, et al. Endothelial cells in physiology and in the pathophysiology of vascular disorders. Blood. 1998;91:3527-3561.
90. Lifton R P, Gharavi AG, Geller DS. Molecular mechanisms of human hypertension. Cell. 2001;104:545-556.
91. Maier JA, Malpuech-Brugère C, Zimowska W, et al. Low magnesium promotes endothelial cell dysfunction: implications for atherosclerosis, infam-mation and thrombosis. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2004;1689:13-21.
92. Bernardini D, Nasulewic A, Mazur A, et al. Magnesium and microvascular endothelial cells: a role in infammation and angiogenesis. Front Biosci. 2005;10:1177-1182.
93. Dong J F, Cruz MA, Aboulfatova K, et al. Magnesium maintains endothelial integrity, up-regulates proteolysis of ultra-large von Willebrand factor, and reduces platelet aggregation under fow conditions. Thromb Haemost. 2008;99:586-593.
94. Harrison D, Griendling KK, Landmesser U, et al. Role of oxidative stress in atherosclerosis. Am J Cardiol. 2003;91(3A):7A-11A.
95. Dickens BF, Weglicki WB, Li YS, et al. Magnesium defciency in vitro enhances free radical-induced intracellular oxidation and cytotoxicity in endothelial cells. FEBS Lett. 1992;311:187-191.
96. Wolf FI, Trapani V, Simonacci M, et al. Magnesium defciency and endothe-lial dysfunction: is oxidative stress involved? Magnes Res. 2008;21:58-64.
97. Hans C P, Chaudhary D P, Bansal DD. Magnesium defciency increases oxida-tive stress in rats. Indian J Exp Biol. 2002;40:1275-1279.
98. Au-Yeung KK, O K, Choy PC, et al. Magnesium tanshinoate B protects endo-thelial cells against oxidized lipoprotein-induced apoptosis. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2007;85:1053-1062.
99. Sherer Y, Shoenfeld Y, Shaish A, et al. Suppression of atherogenesis in female low-density lipoprotein receptor knockout mice following magnesium fortifca-tion of drinking water: the importance of diet. Pathobiology. 2000;68:93-98.
100. Cohen H, Sherer Y, Shaish A, et al. Atherogenesis inhibition induced by magnesium-chloride fortifcation of drinking water. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2002;90:251-259.
101. Ravn HB, Korsholm TL, Falk E. Oral magnesium supplementation induces favorable antiatherogenic changes in ApoE-defcient mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001;21:858-862.
102. King JL, Miller RJ, Blue JP Jr, et al. Inadequate dietary magnesium intake increases atherosclerotic plaque development in rabbits. Nutr Res. 2009;29:343-349.
103. Kishimoto Y, Tani M, Uto-Kondo H, et al. Effects of magnesium on postprandial serum lipid responses in healthy human subjects. Br J Nutr. 2010;103:469-472.
104. Liao F, Folsom AR, Brancati FL. Is low magnesium concentration a risk factor for coronary heart disease? The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Am Heart J. 1998;136:480-490.
105. Ohira T, Peacock JM, Iso H, et al. Serum and dietary magnesium and risk of ischemic stroke: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2009;169:1437-1444.
106. Qu X, Jin F, Hao Y, et al. Magnesium and the risk of cardiovascular events: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. PLoS One. 2013;8:e57720.
107. Silverman HS, Stern MD. Ionic basis of ischaemic cardiac injury: insights from cellular studies. Cardiovasc Res. 1994;28:581-597.
108. Thandroyen FT, Bellotto D, Katayama A, et al. Subcellular electrolyte alterations during progressive hypoxia and following reoxygenation in isolated neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. Circ Res. 1992;71:106-119.
109. Antman EM. Magnesium in acute myocardial infarction: overview of available evidence. Am Heart J. 1996;132:487-495.
110. Touyz RM. Magnesium in clinical medicine. Front Biosci. 2004;9:1278-1293.
111. Kharb S, Singh V. Magnesium defciency potentiates free radical production associated with myocardial infarction. J Assoc Physicians India. 2000;48:484-485.
112. Leor J, Kloner RA. An experimental model examining the role of magnesium in the therapy of acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 1995;75:1292-1293.
113. Woods KL, Fletcher S, Roffe C, et al. Intravenous magnesium sulphate in suspected acute myocardial infarction: results of the second Leicester Intravenous Magnesium Intervention Trial (LIMIT-2). Lancet. 1992;339:1553-1558
114. ISIS-4: a randomised factorial trial assessing early oral captopril, oral mononitrate, and intravenous magnesium sulphate in 58, 050 patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction. ISIS-4 (Fourth International Study of Infarct Survival) Collaborative Group. Lancet. 1995;345:669-685.
115. Early administration of intravenous magnesium to high-risk patients with acute myocardial infarction in the Magnesium in Coronaries (MAGIC) Trial: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;360:1189-1196.
116. Li J, Zhang Q, Zhang M, et al. Intravenous magnesium for acute myocardial infarction. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;CD002755.
117. Albitz R, Magyar J, Nilius B. Block of single cardiac sodium channels by intracellular magnesium. Eur Biophys J. 1990;19:19-23.
118. Wang M, Tashiro M, Berlin JR. Regulation of L-type calcium current by intra-cellular magnesium in rat cardiac myocytes. J Physiol. 2004;555(pt 2):383-396.
119. Howarth FC, Levi AJ. Internal free magnesium modulates the voltage dependence of contraction and Ca transient in rabbit ventricular myocytes. Pfugers Arch. 1998;435:687-698.
120. White RE, Hartzell HC. Effects of intracellular free magnesium on calcium current in isolated cardiac myocytes. Science. 1988;239(4841 pt 1):778-780.
121. Wang M, Berlin JR. Channel phosphorylation and modulation of L-type Ca2+ currents by cytosolic Mg2+ concentration. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2006;291:C83-C92.
122. Kamp TJ, Hell J W. Regulation of cardiac L-type calcium channels by protein kinase A and protein kinase C. Circ Res. 2000;87:1095-1102.
123. Yamaoka K, Seyama I. Modulation of Ca2+ channels by intracellular Mg2+ ions and GTP in frog ventricular myocytes. Pfugers Arch. 1996;432:433-438.
124. Chakraborti S, Chakraborti T, Mandal M, et al. Protective role of magnesium in cardiovascular diseases: a review. Mol Cell Biochem. 2002;238:163-179.
125. Lopatin AN, Makhina EN, Nichols CG. Potassium channel block by cyto-plasmic polyamines as the mechanism of intrinsic rectifcation. Nature. 1994;372:366-369.
126. Vandenberg CA. Inward rectifcation of a potassium channel in cardiac ventricular cells depends on internal magnesium ions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1987;84:2560-2564.
127. Lopatin AN, Nichols CG. [K+] dependence of polyamine-induced rectifca-tion in inward rectifer potassium channels (IRK1, Kir2.1). J Gen Physiol. 1996;108:105-113.
128. Sanguinetti MC, Jurkiewicz NK. Two components of cardiac delayed recti-fer K+ current. Differential sensitivity to block by class III antiarrhythmic agents. J Gen Physiol. 1990;96:195-215.
129. Sanguinetti MC, Curran ME, Zou A, et al. Coassembly of K(V)LQT1 and minK (IsK) proteins to form cardiac I(Ks) potassium channel. Nature. 1996;384:80-83.
130. Williams BA, Beatch GN. Magnesium shifts voltage dependence of activation of delayed rectifer I(K) in guinea pig ventricular myocytes. Am J Physiol. 1997;272(3 pt 2):H1292-H1301.
131. Hirahara K, Matsubayashi T, Matsuura H, et al. Intracellular Mg2+ depletion depresses the delayed rectifer K+ current in guinea pig ventricular myocytes. Jpn J Physiol. 1998;48:81-89.
132. Khan AM, Lubitz SA, Sullivan LM, et al. Low serum magnesium and the development of atrial fbrillation in the community: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 2013;127:33-38.
133. Ho KM. Intravenous magnesium for cardiac arrhythmias: jack of all trades. Magnes Res. 2008;21:65-68.
134. Iseri LT, Allen BJ, Ginkel ML, et al. Ionic biology and ionic medicine in cardiac arrhythmias with particular reference to magnesium. Am Heart J. 1992;123:1404-1409.
135. Bailie DS, Inoue H, Kaseda S, et al. Magnesium suppression of early after-depolarizations and ventricular tachyarrhythmias induced by cesium in dogs. Circulation. 1988;77:1395-1402.
136. Kaseda S, Gilmour RF Jr, Zipes D P. Depressant effect of magnesium on early afterdepolarizations and triggered activity induced by cesium, quini-dine, and 4-aminopyridine in canine cardiac Purkinje fbers. Am Heart J. 1989;118:458-466.
137. DiCarlo LA Jr, Morady F, de Buitleir M, et al. Effects of magnesium sul-fate on cardiac conduction and refractoriness in humans. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1986;7:1356-1362.
138. Satoh Y, Sugiyama A, Tamura K, et al. Effect of magnesium sulfate on the haloperidol-induced QT prolongation assessed in the canine in vivo model under the monitoring of monophasic action potential. Jpn Circ J. 2000;64:445-451.
139. Rasmussen HS, Thomsen PE. The electrophysiological effects of intravenous magnesium on human sinus node, atrioventricular node, atrium, and ventricle. Clin Cardiol. 1989;12:85-90.
140. Chinushi M, Sugiura H, Komura S, et al. Effects of intravenous magnesium in a prolonged QT interval model of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia focus on transmural ventricular repolarization. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2005;28:844-850.
141. Christiansen EH, Frost L, Andreasen F, et al. Dose-related cardiac electro-physiological effects of intravenous magnesium. A double-blind placebo-controlled dose-response study in patients with paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. Europace. 2000;2:320-326.
142. Viskin S, Belhassen B, Sheps D, et al. Clinical and electrophysiologic effects of magnesium sulfate on paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia and comparison with adenosine triphosphate. Am J Cardiol. 1992;70:879-885.
143. Yousif H, Davies G, Oakley CM. Peri-operative supraventricular arrhythmias in coronary bypass surgery. Int J Cardiol. 1990;26:313-318.
144. Aranki S F, Shaw D P, Adams DH, et al. Predictors of atrial fbrillation after coronary artery surgery. Current trends and impact on hospital resources. Circulation. 1996;94:390-397.
145. Hravnak M, Hoffman LA, Saul MI, et al. Predictors and impact of atrial fbrillation after isolated coronary artery bypass grafting. Crit Care Med. 2002;30:330-337.
146. Bradley D, Creswell LL, Hogue CW Jr, et al; American College of Chest Physicians. Pharmacologic prophylaxis: American College of Chest Physicians guidelines for the prevention and management of postoperative atrial fbrillation after cardiac surgery. Chest. 2005;128(2 suppl):39S-47S.
147. Millane TA, Ward DE, Camm AJ. Is hypomagnesemia arrhythmogenic? Clin Cardiol. 1992;15:103-108.
148. Gu WJ, Wu ZJ, Wang PF, et al. Intravenous magnesium prevents atrial fbril-lation after coronary artery bypass grafting: a meta-analysis of 7 double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trials. Trials. 2012;13:41.
149. Henyan NN, Gillespie EL, White CM, et al. Impact of intravenous magnesium on post-cardiothoracic surgery atrial fbrillation and length of hospital stay: a meta-analysis. Ann Thorac Surg. 2005;80:2402-2406.
150. Onalan O, Crystal E, Daoulah A, et al. Meta-analysis of magnesium therapy for the acute management of rapid atrial fbrillation. Am J Cardiol. 2007;99:1726-1732.
151. Cagli K, Ozeke O, Ergun K, et al. Effect of low-dose amiodarone and magnesium combination on atrial fbrillation after coronary artery surgery. J Card Surg. 2006;21:458-464.
152. Sleeswijk ME, Tulleken JE, Van Noord T, et al. Effcacy of magnesium-ami-odarone step-up scheme in critically ill patients with new-onset atrial fbrilla-tion: a prospective observational study. J Intensive Care Med. 2008;23:61-66.
153. Tercius AJ, Kluger J, Coleman CI, et al. Intravenous magnesium sulfate enhances the ability of intravenous ibutilide to successfully convert atrial fbrillation or futter. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2007;30:1331-1335.
154. Coleman CI, Sood N, Chawla D, et al; Dofetilide and Intravenous Magnesium Evaluation (DIME) Investigators. Intravenous magnesium sulfate enhances the ability of dofetilide to successfully cardiovert atrial fbrillation or futter: results of the Dofetilide and Intravenous Magnesium Evaluation. Europace. 2009;11:892-895.
155. Zipes D P, Camm AJ, Borggrefe M, et al; American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force; European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines; European Heart Rhythm Association; Heart Rhythm Society. ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (writing committee to develop Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death): developed in collaboration with the European Heart Rhythm Association and the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation. 2006;114:e385-e484.
156. Kinlay S, Buckley NA. Magnesium sulfate in the treatment of ventricular arrhythmias due to digoxin toxicity. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1995;33:55-59.
157. Buxton AE, Calkins H, Callans DJ, et al; American College of Cardiology; American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Data Standards; (ACC/AHA/HRS Writing Committee to Develop Data Standards on Electrophysiology). ACC/AHA/HRS 2006 key data elements and defnitions for electrophysiological studies and procedures: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Data Standards (ACC/AHA/HRS Writing Committee to Develop Data Standards on Electrophysiology). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48:2360-2396.
158. Tzivoni D, Banai S, Schuger C, et al. Treatment of torsade de pointes with magnesium sulfate. Circulation. 1988;77:392-397.
159. Kurita T, Ohe T, Shimizu W, et al. Early afterdepolarization in a patient with complete atrioventricular block and torsades de pointes. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1993;16(1 pt 1):33-38.
160. Yap YG, Camm AJ. Drug induced QT prolongation and torsades de pointes. Heart. 2003;89:1363-1372.
161. Spragg DD, Tomaselli GF. Principles of electrophysiology. In: Longo DL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, et al, eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 18th ed. New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Professional; 2011;1860-1866.
162. Abbott LG, Rude RK. Clinical manifestations of magnesium defciency. Miner Electrolyte Metab. 1993;19:314-322.
163. Seelig M. Cardiovascular consequences of magnesium defciency and loss: pathogenesis, prevalence and manifestations-magnesium and chloride loss in refractory potassium repletion. Am J Cardiol. 1989;63:4G-21G.
164. Parikka H, Toivonen L, Naukkarinen V, et al. Decreases by magnesium of QT dispersion and ventricular arrhythmias in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J. 1999;20:111-120.
165. Rude RK. Physiology of magnesium metabolism and the important role of magnesium in potassium defciency. Am J Cardiol. 1989;63:31G-34G.
166. Gottlieb SS, Baruch L, Kukin ML, et al. Prognostic importance of the serum magnesium concentration in patients with congestive heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1990;16:827-831.
167. Gottlieb SS, Fisher ML, Pressel MD, et al. Effects of intravenous magnesium sulfate on arrhythmias in patients with congestive heart failure. Am Heart J. 1993;125:1645-1650.
168. Ceremuzynski L, Gebalska J, Wolk R, et al. Hypomagnesemia in heart failure with ventricular arrhythmias. Benefcial effects of magnesium supplementation. J Intern Med. 2000;247:78-86.
169. Parikka H, Toivonen L, Verkkala K, et al. Ventricular arrhythmia suppression by magnesium treatment after coronary artery bypass surgery. Int J Angiol. 1999;8:165-170.
170. Zehender M, Meinertz T, Faber T, et al. Antiarrhythmic effects of increasing the daily intake of magnesium and potassium in patients with frequent ventricular arrhythmias. Magnesium in Cardiac Arrhythmias (MAGICA) Investigators. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;29:1028-1034.
171. Shechter M, Kaplinsky E, Rabinowitz B. The rationale of magnesium supplementation in acute myocardial infarction. A review of the literature. Arch Intern Med. 1992;152:2189-2196.
172. Pokan R, Hofmann P, von Duvillard S P, et al. Oral magnesium therapy, exercise heart rate, exercise tolerance, and myocardial function in coronary artery disease patients. Br J Sports Med. 2006;40:773-778.
173. Fuentes JC, Salmon AA, Silver MA. Acute and chronic oral magnesium supplementation: effects on endothelial function, exercise capacity, and quality of life in patients with symptomatic heart failure. Congest Heart Fail. 2006;12:9-13.
174. Mathers T W, Beckstrand RL. Oral magnesium supplementation in adults with coronary heart disease or coronary heart disease risk. J Am Acad Nurse Pract. 2009;21:651-657.
175. Bolland MJ, Grey A, Avenell A, et al. Calcium supplements with or without vitamin D and risk of cardiovascular events: reanalysis of the Women's Health Initiative limited access dataset and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2011;342:d2040.
176. Reid IR, Bolland MJ. Risk factors: calcium supplements and cardiovascular risk. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2012;9:497-498.