Older adults and technology-based instruction: Optimizing learning outcomes and transfer

Academy of Management Learning and Education

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 26-44

  Wolfson, Natalie E ^a   Cavanagh, Thomas M ^a   Kraiger, Kurt ^a  

^a Veterinary Dentistry and Oral Surgery   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84898623447     PISSN: 1537260X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5465/amle.2012.0056     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. AbilityHub. 2003. Assistive technology solutions. Available at: http://www.abilityhub.com.
2. Allen, E., & Seaman, J. 2011. Going the distance: Online education in the United States in 2011. Available at: http://www.babson.edu/Academics/ centers/blank-center/global-research/Documents/going-the-distance.pdf. Accessed October 14,2012.
3. Allport, G. W. 1954. The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books.
4. American Library Association. 2004. Seniors and computer technology. Library Technology Reports, 40: 32-40.
5. Backman, L., Small, B. J., Wahlin, A., & Larsson, M. 2000. Cognitive functioning in very old age. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), Handbook of aging and cognition (2nd ed.): 499-558. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
6. Baddeley, A. 1992. Working memory: The interface between memory and cognition. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 4: 281-288.
7. Bean, C., & Laven, M. 2003. Adapting to seniors: Computer training for older adults. Florida Libraries, 46: 5-7.
8. Beier, M. E. 2008. Age and learning in organizations. In G. P. Hodgkinson & J. K. Ford (Eds.). International review of industrial and organizational psychology, 23: 83-105. West Sussex, England: Wiley.
9. Beier, M. E., & Ackerman, P. L. 2005. Age, ability, and the role of prior knowledge on the acquisition of new domain knowledge: Promising results in a real-world learning environment. Psychology and Aging, 20: 341-355.
10. Beier, M. E., Teachout, M. S., & Cox, C. B. 2012. The training and development of an aging workforce. In J. W. Hedge & W. C. Borman (Eds.), Work and aging handbook: 436-453. New York: Oxford University Press.
11. Bell, B. S., Kanar, A., Liu, X., Forman, J., & Singh, M. 2006. Adaptive guidance: Effects on self-regulated learning in technology- based training. Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies Working paper series wp06-17, 1-34. Ithaca, NY:Cornell University.
12. Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. 2002. Adaptive guidance: Enhancing self-regulation, knowledge and performance in technologybased training. Personnel Psychology, 55: 267-306.
13. Berthold, K., Nuckles, M., & Renkl, A. 2007. Do learning protocols support learning strategies and outcomes? The role of cognitive and metacognitive prompts. Learning and Instruction, 17: 564-577.
14. Bopp, K. L., & Verhaeghen, P. 2005. Aging and verbal memory span: A meta-analysis. Journals of Gerontology. Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60: 223-233.
15. Brown, K. G., Charlier, S. D., & Pierotti, A. 2012. E-learning at work: Contributions of past research and suggestions for the future. In G. P. Hodgkinson & J. K. Ford (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology.Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
16. Brown, K. G., & Ford, J. K. 2002. Using computer technology in training: Building an infrastructure for active learning. In K. Kraiger (Ed.), Creating, implementing, and maintaining effective training and development: State-of-the-art lessonsfor practice: 192-233. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
17. Callahan, J., Kiker, D., & Cross, T. 2003. Does method matter? A meta-analysis of the effects of training method on older learner training performance. Journal of Management, 29: 663-680.
18. Cao, Y., & Sakchutchawan, S. 2011. Online vs. traditional MBA: An empirical study of students' characteristics, course satisfaction, and overall success. The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning, 7.
19. Caplan, L. J., & Schooler, C. 1990. The effects of analogical training models and age on problem-solving in a new domain. Experimental Aging Research, 16: 151-154.
20. Carpenter, B. D., & Buday, S. 2007. Computer use among older adults in a naturally occurring retirement community. Computers in Human Behavior, 23: 3012-3024.
21. Carstensen, L. L. 1993. Motivation for social contact across the life span: A theory of socioemotional selectivity. In J.E. Jacobs (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: 1992, Developmental perspectives on motivation, 40: 209-254. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
22. Carstensen, L. 1995. Evidence for a life-span theory of socioemotional selectivity. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4: 151-156.
23. Carstensen, L., Mikels, J., & Mather, M. 2006. Aging and the intersection of cognition, motivation, and emotion. In J. Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging: 343-362. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.
24. Carstensen, L. L., Pasupathi, M., Mayr, U., & Nesselroade, J. R. 2000. Emotional experience in everyday life across the adult life span. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79: 644-655.
25. Carter, M., & Beier, M. E. 2010. The effectiveness of error management training with working aged adults. Personnel Psychology, 63: 641-675.
26. Cerella, J. 1990. Aging and information processing rates in the elderly. In J. E. Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging: 201-221. New York: Academic Press.
27. Charness, N., & Boot, W. R. 2009. Aging and information technology use: Potential and barriers. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18: 253-258.
28. Charness, N., & Czaja, S. J. 2006. Older worker training: What we know and don't know. Washington, DC: AARP Public Policy Institute. Available at: http://assets.aarp.org/rgcenter/econ/2006-22-worker.pdf.
29. Charness, N., Kelley, C. L., Bosman, E. A., & Mottram, M. 2001. Word processing training and retraining: Effects of adult age, experience, and interface. Psychology and Aging, 16: 110-127.
30. Chipman, S. F., Schraagen, J. M., & Shalin, V. L. 2000. Introduction to cognitive task analysis. In J. M. Schraagen, S. F. Chipman, & V. L. Shalin (Eds.), Cognitive task analysis: 3-23. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
31. Connelly, S. L., Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. 1991. Age and reading: The impact of distraction. Psychology and Aging, 6: 533-541.
32. Coyne, K. P., & Nielsen, J. 2002. Web usability for senior citizens: Design guidelines based on usability studies with people age 65 and older: 126. Fremont, CA: Nielsen Norman Group.
33. Craik, F. I. M. 1986. A functional account of age differences in memory. In F. Klix & H. Hagendorf (Eds.), Human memory and cognitive capabilities, mechanisms and performance (Part A): 409-422. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
34. Crow, A. 2002. What's age got to do with it? Teaching older students in computer-aided classrooms. Teaching English in the Two-Year College, 27: 400-406.
35. Czaja, S. J., & Lee, C. C. 2003. Designing computer systems for older adults. In J. Jacko & A. Sears (Eds.), The humancomputer interaction handbook, 413-427. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
36. Czaja, S., & Lee, C. C. 2007. The impact of aging on access to technology. Universal Access in the Information Society, 5: 341-349.
37. Czaja, S. J., & Sharit, J. 1993. Age differences in the performance of computer-based work. Psychology and Aging, 8: 69-87.
38. Czaja, S. J., & Sharit, J. 1998. Age differences in attitudes towards computers. Journals of Gerontology. Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 53B: 329-340.
39. DeRouin, R. E., Fritsche, B. A., & Salas, E. 2004. Optimizing e-learning: Research based guidelines for learner-controlled training. Human Resource Management, 43: 147-162.
40. Dunlosky, J., & Hertzog, C. 2001. Measuring strategy production during associative learning: the relative utility of concurrent versus retrospective reports. Memory and Cognition, 29: 247-253.
41. Echt, K. W., Morrell, R. W., & Park, D. C. 1998. The effects of age and training formats on basic computer skill acquisition in older adults. Educational Gerontology, 24: 3-25.
42. Economist. 2006, February. Turning boomers into boomerangs. 378: 65-67.
43. Fisk, J. E., & Sharp, C. A. 2004. Age-related impairment in executive functioning: Updating, inhibition, shifting, and access. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26: 874-890.
44. Green, M., & McGill, E. 2011. State of the industry, 2011: ASTD's annual review of workplace learning and developmental data. Alexandria, VA: ASTD.
45. Hall, D. 1997. Computer mediated communication in postcompulsory teacher education. Open Learning, 12: 54-56.
46. Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. 1988. Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and a new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory, 22: 193-225. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
47. Head, D., Raz, N., Gunning-Dixon, F., Williamson, A., & Acker, J. D. 2002. Age-related differences in the course of cognitive skill acquisition: The role of regional cortical shrinkage and cognitive resources. Psychology and Aging, 17: 72-84.
48. Hertzog, C., & Dunlosky, J. 2004. Aging, metacognition, and cognitive control. In K. W. Spence (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory, 45: 215-251. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
49. Hollis-Sawyer, L. A., & Sterns, H. L. 1999. A novel goal-oriented approach for training older adult computer novices: Beyond the effects of individual-difference factors. Educational Gerontology, 25: 661-684.
50. Horn, J. L., & Cattell, R. B. 1967. Age differences in fluid and crystallized intelligence. Acta Psychologica, 26: 107-129.
51. Howard, A., & Wellins, R. 2008. Global leadership forecast 2008/ 2009. Bridgeville, PA: Development Dimensions International.
52. Ji, Y. G., Choi, J., Lee, J. Y., Han, K., Kim, J., & Lee, I. 2010. Older adults in an aging society and social computing: A research agenda. International Journal of Human Computer Interaction, 26: 1122-1146.
53. Jones, B. D., & Bayen, U. J. 1998. Teaching older adults to use computers: Recommendations based on cognitive aging research. Educational Gerontology, 24: 675-689.
54. Kalyuga, S. 2009. Optimizing cognitive load in instructional simulations and games. In S. Kalyuga (Ed.), Managing Cognitive Load in Adaptive Multimedia Learning: 198-216. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.
55. Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. 1989. Motivation and cognitive abilities: An integrative/aptitude-treatment interaction approach to skills acquisition. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74: 657-690.
56. Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. 2004. Aging, adult development, and work motivation. Academy of Management Review, 29: 440-458.
57. Kennedy, K. M., Partridge, T., & Raz, N. 2008. Age-related differences in acquisition of perceptual-motor skills: Working memory as a mediator. Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section B, Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition,15: 165-183.
58. Kim, S., Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. 2007. Aging and benefit of distractibility. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 14: 301-305.
59. Knowles, M. 1990. The adult learner: A neglected species, 4th ed. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.
60. Koller, V., Harvey, S., & Magnotta, M. 2006. Technology-based learning strategies. Available at: http://www.doleta.gov/reports/papers/tbl- paper-final.pdf. Accessed October 10, 2012
61. Koriat, A. 2007. Metacognition and consciousness. In P. D. Zelazo, M. Moscovitch & E. Thompson (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of consciousness: 289-325. New York: Cambridge University Press.
62. Kraiger, K., & Ford, J. K. 2006. The expanding role of workplace training: Themes and trends influencing training research and practice. In L. L. Koppes (Ed.), Historical perspectives in industrial and organizational psychology: 281-309. Mahwah,NJ: Erlbaum.
63. Kraiger, K., & Jerden, E. 2007. A new look at learner control: Meta-analytic results and directions for future research. In S. M. Fiore and E. Salas (Eds.), Where is the learning in distance learning? Towards a science of distributed learning and training: 65-90. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
64. Kraiger, K., & Wolfson, N. 2011. Assessing learning needs and outcomes in lifelong learning support systems. In M. London (Ed.), Handbook of lifelong learning: 441-471. New York:Oxford University Press.
65. Laberge, J. C., & Scialfa, C. T. 2005. Predictors of web navigation performance in a life span sample of adults. Human Factors, 47: 289-302.
66. Linardopoulos, N. 2010. Teaching and learning public speaking online. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 6(1): 198-209.
67. Luiten, J., Ames, W., & Ackerson, G. 1980. A meta-analysis of the effects of advanced organizers on learning and retention. American Educational Research Journal, 17: 211-218.
68. Marquié, J. C., Jourdan-Boddaert, L. L., & Huet, N. N. 2002. Do older adults underestimate their actual computer knowledge? Behaviour & Information Technology, 21: 273-280.
69. Maurer, T. J. 2001. Career-relevant learning and development, worker age, and beliefs about self-efficacy for development. Journal of Management, 27: 123-140.
70. Maurer, T. J., Weiss, E. M., & Barbeite, F. G. 2003. A model of involvement in work-related learning and development activity: The effects of individual, situational, motivational,and age variables. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88: 707-724.
71. Mayer, R. E. 1979. Twenty years of research on advance organizers: Assimilation theory is still the best predictor of results. Instructional Science, 8: 133-167.
72. Mayer, R. E. 2001. Multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
73. Mayer, R. E. 2005. The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
74. Mayhorn, C. B., Stronge, A. J., McLaughlin, A. C., & Rogers, W. A. 2004. Older adults, computer training, and the systems approach: A formula for success. Educational Gerontology, 30: 185-203.
75. Mayr, U., & Kliegl, R. 1993. Sequential and coordinative complexity: Age-based processing limitations in figural transformations. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19: 1297-1320.
76. Mayr, U., Kliegl, R., & Krampe, R. T. 1996. Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformations across the life span. Cognition, 59: 61-90.
77. McAdams, D. P., Aubin, St. de E., & Logan, R. L. 1993. Generativity among young, mid-life, and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 8: 221-230.
78. McCabe, D. P., Roediger, H. L., McDaniel, M. A., Balota, D. A., & Hambrick, D. Z. 2010. The relationship between working memory capacity and executive functioning: Evidence for a common executive attention construct. Neuropsychology,24: 222-243.
79. McCall, M. W. 2010. Recasting leadership development. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 3: 3-19.
80. McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T., Jr., Ostendorf, F., Angleitner, A., Hrebícková, M., Avia, M. D., Sanz, J., Sánchez-Bernardos, M. L., Kusdil, M. E., Woodfield, R., Saunders, P. R., & Smith,P. B. 2000. Nature over nurture: Temperament, personality, and life span development. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78: 173-186.
81. McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T., Jr., Pedroso de Lima, M., Simões, A., Ostendorf, F., Angleitner, A., Marusić, I., Bratko, D., Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Chae, J. H., & Piedmont, R. L.1999. Age differences in personality across the adult life span: Parallels in five cultures. Developmental Psychology, 35: 466-477.
82. Mead, S., & Fisk, A. D. 1998. Measuring skill acquisition and retention with an ATM simulator: The need for age-specific training. Human Factors, 40: 516-523.
83. Mead, S. E., Spaulding, V. A., Sit, R. A., Mayer, B., & Walker, N. 1997. Effects of age and training on World Wide Web navigation strategies, Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 41st Annual Meeting (Santa Monica,CA.): 52-156.
84. Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. 2005. Cognitive load theory and complex learning: Recent developments and future directions. Educational Psychology Review, 17: 147-177.
85. Mitchell, D. B., Brown, A. S., & Murphy, D. R. 1990. Dissociations between procedural and episodic memory: Effects of time and aging. Psychology and Aging, 5: 264-276.
86. Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. 1999. Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: The role of modality and contiguity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91: 358-368.
87. Morrell, R. W., & Echt, K. V. 1996. Instructional design for older computer users: The influence of cognitive factors. In W. A. Rogers, A. D. Fisk, & N. Walker (Eds.), Aging and skilled performance: Advances in theory and application: 241-265. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
88. Morrell, R. W., Park, D. C., Mayhorn, C. B., & Echt, K. V. 1995. Older adults and electronic communication networks: Learning to use ELDERCOMM. Paper Presented at the 103rdmeeting of American Psychological Association
89. Moseley, J. L., & Dessinger, J. C. 2007. Training older workers and learners: Maximizing the performance of an aging workforce. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer/Wiley.
90. Mroczek, D. K., & Kolarz, C. M. 1998. The effect of age on positive and negative affect: A developmental perspective on happiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75: 1333-1349.
91. National Research Council. 2004. Technology for adaptive aging. Steering committee for the workshop on technology for adaptive aging. In R. W. Pew & S. B. Van Hemel (Eds.), Board on Behavioral, Cognitive and Sensory Sciences, Division ofBehavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
92. Noh, S., Shake, M. C., Parisi, J. M., Joncich, A. D., Morrow, D. G., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. 2007. Age differences in learning from text: The effects of content pre-exposure on reading. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31: 133-148.
93. Oberauer, K., & Kliegl, R. 2001. Beyond resources: Formal models of complexity effects and age differences in working memory. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 13: 87-215.
94. Park, D. C., Lautenschlager, G., Hedden, T., Davidson, N. S., Smith, A. D., & Smith, P. K. 2002. Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span. Psychology and Aging, 17: 299-320.
95. Park, D., & Payer, D. 2006. Working memory across the adult lifespan. In E. Bialystock & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Lifespan cognition: Mechanisms of change: 128-142. New York: Oxford University Press.
96. Parker, B., & Burnie, D. 2009. Classroom technology in business schools: A survey of installations and attitudes toward teaching and learning. AACE Journal, 17: 45-60.
97. Preiss, R. W., & Gayle, B. M. 2006. A meta-analysis of the educational benefits of employing advance organizers. Classroom communication and instructiona processes: Advances through meta-analysis: 329-344.
98. Reed, A. E., Mikels, J. A., & Simon, K. I. 2008. Older adults prefer less choice than young adults. Psychology and Aging, 23: 671-675.
99. Ronen, E. 2010. Transfer of e-learning in the workplace: The effects of trainee characteristics and contextual factors. Dissertation Abstracts International, 70.
100. Rouiller, J. Z. & Goldstein, I. L. 1993. The relationship between organisational transfer climate and positive transfer of training. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 4 (4):377-90.
101. Roos, E., Dickinson, A., Goodman, J., Mival, O., Syme, A., & Tiwari, L. 2003. Mutual inspiration in the development of new technology for older people. Include, 7: 252-259.
102. Salthouse, T. A. 1993. Speed and knowledge as determinants of adult age differences in verbal tasks. Journals of Gerontology, 48: 29-36.
103. Salthouse, T. A. 1996. The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103: 403-428.
104. Salthouse, T. A. 2003. Interrelations of aging, knowledge, and cognitive performance. In U. Staudinger & U. Lindenberger (Eds.), Understanding human development: Lifespan psychology in exchange with other disciplines: 265-287. Berlin,Germany: Kluwer Academic.
105. Santiago, R. S., & Okey, J. R. 1992. The effects of advisement and locus of control on achievement in learner-controlled instruction. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 19: 47-53.
106. Sauzéon, H., Claverie, B., & N'Kaoua, B. 2006. Age differences in the organization and acquisition-forgetting processes in a multi-free-recall task. Currents Psychology Letters, 1: 18.
107. Sayers, H. 2004. Desktop virtual environments: A study of navigation and age. Interacting with Computers, 16: 939-956.
108. Schaie, K. W. 1996. Intellectual development in adulthood: The Seattle Longitudinal Study. New York: Cambridge University Press.
109. Schultz, K. S., & Adams, G. A. 2007. Editors' overview. In K. S. Schultz & G. A. Adams (Eds.), Aging and work in the 21st century: 1-6. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
110. Sharit, J., Hernández, M. A., Czaja, S. J., & Pirolli, P. 2008. Investigating the roles of knowledge and cognitive abilities in older adult information seeking on the web. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 15: 1-25.
111. Sitzmann, T., Bell, B. S., Kraiger, K., & Kanar, A. M. 2009. A multi-level analysis of prompting self-regulation in technology- delivered instruction. Personnel Psychology, 62:697-734.
112. Sitzmann, T., & Ely, K. 2010. Sometimes you need a reminder: The effects of prompting self-regulation on regulatory processes, learning and attrition. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95: 132-144.
113. Snow, R. E. 1989. Cognitive-cognitive aptitude interactions in learning. In R. Kanfer, R. Cudeck, & P. L. Ackerman (Eds.), Abilities, motivation, and methodology: The Minnesotasymposium on learning and individual differences: 435-474. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
114. Snow, R. E., & Lohman, D. F. 1984. Toward a theory of cognitive aptitude for learning from instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76: 347-376.
115. Soederberg Miller, M. L. 2009. Age differences in the effects of domain knowledge on reading efficiency. Psychology and Aging, 24: 63-74.
116. Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. 1995. Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69: 797-811.
117. Stone, C. 1983. A meta-analysis of advance organizer studies. Journal of Experimental Education, 51: 194-199.
118. Susman, E. B., 1998. Cooperative learning: A review of factors that increase effectiveness of cooperative computer-based instruction. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 18: 303-322.
119. Sweller, J. 1988. Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12: 257-285.
120. Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. 1998. Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10: 251-296.
121. Tennyson, R. D., & Rothen, W. 1979. Management of computerbased instruction: Design of an adaptive control strategy. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 5: 126-134.
122. Thompson, C. 2011, July. How Khan Academy is changing the rules of education. Wired.
123. Thompson, D. N. 1997. Practice effects of advance organization with older adult subjects. Educational Gerontology, 23: 207- 212.
124. Toossi, M. 2009. Labor force projections to 2018: Older workers staying more active. Monthly Labor Review: 30-51.
125. Touron, D. R., & Hertzog, C. 2004. Distinguishing age differences in knowledge, strategy use, and confidence during strategic skill acquisition. Psychology and Aging: 19: 452-466.
126. Touron, D. R., & Hertzog, C. 2009. Age differences in strategic behavior during a computation-based skill acquisition task. Psychology and Aging, 24: 574-585.
127. Tracey, J. B., Tannenbaum, S. I., & Kavanagh, M. J. 1995. Applying trained skills on the job: The importance of the work environment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80: 239-252.
128. Uribe, D., Klein, J. D., & Sullivan, H. 2003. The effect of computermediated collaborative learning on solving ill-defined problems. Educational Research Technology and Development, 51: 5-19.
129. USA Today. 2010, December 15. American workforce growing grayer, vol 1
130. Van Gerven, P. W. M., Paas, F., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Hendriks, M., & Schmidt, H. G. 2003. The efficiency of multimedia learning into old age. British Journal of EducationalPsychology, 73: 489-505.
131. Van Gerven, P. W. M., Paas, F., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Schmidt, H. G. 2002. Cognitive load theory and aging: Effects of worked examples on training efficiency. Learning and Instruction, 38: 87-107.
132. Van Gerven, P. W. M., Paas, F., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Schmidt, H. G. 2006. Modality and variability as factors in training the elderly. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 311- 320.
133. Verhaeghen, P., & Salthouse, T. A. 1997. Meta-analyses of age- cognition relations in adulthood: Estimates of linear and nonlinear age effects and structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 122: 231-249.
134. Warr, P., Miles, A., & Platts, C. 2001. Age and personality in the British population between 16 and 64 years. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74: 165-199.
135. West, R. L. 1996. An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging. Psychological Bulletin, 120: 272- 292.
136. Witte, K. L., Freund, J. S., & Sebby, R. A. 1990. Age differences in free recall and subjective organization. Psychology and Aging, 5: 307-309.
137. Wolfson, N. E., & Kraiger, K. 2012. Cognitive aging and training: The role of coherence level and advance organizers. Manuscript submitted for publication.
138. Zandri, E., & Charness, N. 1989. Training older and younger adults to use software. Educational Gerontology, 15: 615-631.