The role of neuroendocrine pathways in prognosis after stroke

Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics

Volumn 14, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 217-232

  El Husseini, Nada ^a   Laskowitz, Daniel T ^a  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

circadian rhythm; depression; glucocorticoid; hypothalamo pituitary adrenal axis; natriuretic peptides; neuroendocrine; prognosis; stress; stroke

Indexed keywords

ADRENALIN; AMINO TERMINAL PRO BRAIN NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE; ATRIAL NATRIURETIC FACTOR; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; BRAIN NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE; CATECHOLAMINE; COPEPTIN; CORTICOTROPIN; GAMMA INTERFERON; GROWTH HORMONE; HYDROCORTISONE; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 10; INTERLEUKIN 12; INTERLEUKIN 6; MELATONIN; METADRENALIN; NATRIURETIC FACTOR; NITRIC OXIDE; NORADRENALIN; PRASTERONE; PRASTERONE SULFATE; SOMATOMEDIN C; TROPONIN I; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DELIRIUM; DEPRESSION; HEART MUSCLE INJURY; HORMONE RESPONSE; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INFECTION; MENTAL STRESS; NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM; NONHUMAN; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; SOCIAL ISOLATION; SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE;

HUMANS; NEUROSECRETORY SYSTEMS; PROGNOSIS; STROKE;

EID: 84893075482     PISSN: 14737175     EISSN: 17448360     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/14737175.2014.877841     Document Type: Review

References (172)

1. Gore AC. Neuroendocrine targets of endocrine disruptors. Hormones 2010;9(1): 16-27
2. Anne M, Juha K, Timo M, et al. Neurohormonal activation in ischemic stroke: Effects of acute phase disturbances on long-Term mortality. Curr Neurovasc Res 2007;4(3):170-5
3. Gaillard RC, Al-Damluji S. Stress and the pituitary-Adrenal axis. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987;1(2):319-54
4. Olsson T, Marklund N, Gustafson Y, Nasman B. Abnormalities at different levels of the hypothalamic-pituitary-Adrenocortical axis early after stroke. Stroke 1992;23(11): 1573-6
5. Ala-Kopsala M, Magga J, Peuhkurinen K, et al. Molecular heterogeneity has a major impact on the measurement of circulating N-Terminal fragments of A- and B-Type natriuretic peptides. Clin Chem 2004;50(9): 1576-88
6. Chamorro A, Urra X, Planas AM. Infection after acute ischemic stroke: A manifestation of brain-induced immunodepression. Stroke 2007;38(3):1097-103
7. Buckley TM, Schatzberg AF. On the interactions of the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal (HPA) axis and sleep: Normal HPA axis activity and circadian rhythm, exemplary sleep disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90(5):3106-14
8. Turnbull AV, Rivier CL. Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-Adrenal axis by cytokines: Actions and mechanisms of action. Physiol Rev 1999;79(1):1-71
9. Chrousos GP. The hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal axis and immune-mediated inflammation. N Engl J Med 1995;332(20): 1351-62
10. Stuller KA, Jarrett B, Devries AC. Stress and social isolation increase vulnerability to stroke. Exp Neurol 2012;233(1):33-9
11. Fassbender K, Schmidt R, Mossner R, et al. Pattern of activation of the hypothalamicpituitary- adrenal axis in acute stroke. Relation to acute confusional state, extent of brain damage, and clinical outcome. Stroke 1994;25(6):1105-8
12. Johansson A, Olsson T, Carlberg B, et al. Hypercortisolism after stroke-partly cytokine-mediated? J Neurol Sci 1997; 147(1):43-7
13. Weidenfeld J, Leker RR, Gai N, et al. The function of the adrenocortical axis in permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion: Effect of glucocorticoids on the neurological outcome. Brain Res 2011;1407:90-6
14. Xiong X, Liang Q, Chen J, et al. Proteomics profiling of pituitary, adrenal gland, and splenic lymphocytes in rats with middle cerebral artery occlusion. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2009;73(3):657-64
15. Szczudlik A, Dziedzic T, Bartus S, et al. Serum interleukin-6 predicts cortisol release in acute stroke patients. J Endocrinol Invest 2004;27(1):37-41
16. Katan M, Elkind MS. Inflammatory and neuroendocrine biomarkers of prognosis after ischemic stroke. Expert Rev Neurother 2011;11(2):225-39
17. Shoja MM, Tubbs RS, Shokouhi G, et al. The potential role of carbon dioxide in the neuroimmunoendocrine changes following cerebral ischemia. Life Sci 2008;83(11-12): 381-7
18. Moskowitz MA, Lo EH, Iadecola C. The science of stroke: Mechanisms in search of treatments. Neuron 2010;67(2):181-98
19. Devries AC, Joh HD, Bernard O, et al. Social stress exacerbates stroke outcome by suppressing Bcl-2 expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98(20):11824-8
20. Ribe EM, Serrano-Saiz E, Akpan N, Troy CM. Mechanisms of neuronal death in disease: Defining the models and the players. Biochem J 2008;415(2):165-82
21. Amantea D, Nappi G, Bernardi G, et al. Post-ischemic brain damage: Pathophysiology and role of inflammatory mediators. FEBS J 2009;276(1):13-26
22. Offner H, Vandenbark AA, Hurn PD. Effect of experimental stroke on peripheral immunity: CNS ischemia induces profound immunosuppression. Neuroscience 2009; 158(3):1098-111
23. Priller J, Flugel A, Wehner T, et al. Targeting gene-modified hematopoietic cells to the central nervous system: Use of green fluorescent protein uncovers microglial engraftment. Nat Med 2001;7(12):1356-61
24. Yrjanheikki J, Tikka T, Keinanen R, et al. A tetracycline derivative, minocycline, reduces inflammation and protects against focal cerebral ischemia with a wide therapeutic window. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96(23):13496-500
25. Allan SM, Tyrrell PJ, Rothwell NJ. Interleukin-1 and neuronal injury. Nat Rev Immunol 2005;5(8):629-40
26. Wang Q, Tang XN, Yenari MA. The inflammatory response in stroke. J Neuroimmunol 2007;184(1-2):53-68
27. Shohami E, Ginis I, Hallenbeck JM. Dual role of tumor necrosis factor alpha in brain injury. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 1999; 10(2):119-30
28. Sawchenko PE, Brown ER, Chan RK, et al. The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and the functional neuroanatomy of visceromotor responses to stress. Prog Brain Res 1996;107: 201-22
29. Pavlov VA, Wang H, Czura CJ, et al. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway: A missing link in neuroimmunomodulation. Mol Med 2003;9(5-8):125-34
30. Chrousos GP, Gold PW. The concepts of stress and stress system disorders. Overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis. JAMA 1992;267(9):1244-52
31. Felten DL. Neural influence on immune responses: Underlying suppositions and basic principles of neural-immune signaling. Prog Brain Res 2000;122:381-9
32. Sanders VM, Baker RA, Ramer-Quinn DS, et al. Differential expression of the beta2-Adrenergic receptor by Th1 and Th2 clones: Implications for cytokine production and B cell help. J Immunol 1997;158(9):4200-10
33. Kohm AP, Sanders VM. Norepinephrine and beta 2-Adrenergic receptor stimulation regulate CD4+ T and B lymphocyte function in vitro and in vivo. Pharmacol Rev 2001;53(4):487-525
34. Kin NW, Sanders VM. It takes nerve to tell T and B cells what to do. J Leukoc Biol 2006;79(6):1093-104
35. Tang Y, Shankar R, Gamelli R, Jones S. Dynamic norepinephrine alterations in bone marrow: Evidence of functional innervation. J Neuroimmunol 1999;96(2):182-9
36. Fink GD, Fisher JW. Stimulation of erythropoiesis by beta adrenergic agonists. I. Characterization of activity in polycythemic mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1977;202(1): 192-8
37. Ma RC, Chan WB, So WY, et al. Carbamazepine and false positive dexamethasone suppression tests for Cushing's syndrome. BMJ 2005;330(7486): 299-300
38. Latendresse G, Ruiz RJ. Bioassay research methodology: Measuring CRH in pregnancy. Biol Res Nurs 2008;10(1):54-62
39. Borin CM, Van Den Berghe D, Vervenne H. Impact of collection method and sample handling on measured levels of circulating ACTH. Crit Care 2010; 14(Suppl 1):P592
40. Lindsay JR, Shanmugam VK, Oldfield EH, et al. A comparison of immunometric and radioimmunoassay measurement of ACTH for the differential diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome. J Endocrinol Invest 2006;29(11): 983-8
41. Wilkinson CW, Raff H. Comparative evaluation of a new immunoradiometric assay for corticotropin. Clin Chem Lab Med 2006;44(5):669-71
42. Pfohl B, Sherman B, Schlechte J, Stone R. Pituitary-Adrenal axis rhythm disturbances in psychiatric depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;42(9):897-903
43. Smith SR, Bledsoe T, Chhetri MK. Cortisol metabolism and the pituitary-Adrenal axis in adults with protein-calorie malnutrition. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1975;40(1):43-52
44. Pfohl B, Sherman B, Schlechte J, Winokur G. Differences in plasma ACTH and cortisol between depressed patients and normal controls. Biol Psychiatry 1985; 20(10):1055-72
45. Schlechte JA, Coffman T. Plasma free cortisol in depressive illness-A review of findings and clinical implications. Psychiatr Med 1985;3(1):23-31
46. Fink RS, Short F, Marjot DH, James VH. Abnormal suppression of plasma cortisol during the intravenous infusion of dexamethasone to alcoholic patients. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1981;15(1):97-102
47. Ho JT, Al-Musalhi H, Chapman MJ, et al. Septic shock and sepsis: A comparison of total and free plasma cortisol levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91(1):105-14
48. Hamrahian AH, Oseni TS, Arafah BM. Measurements of serum free cortisol in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 2004; 350(16):1629-38
49. Mattingly D. A simple fluorimetric method for the estimation of free 11-hydroxycorticoids in human plasma. J Clin Pathol 1962;15:374-9
50. Guo T, Taylor RL, Singh RJ, Soldin SJ. Simultaneous determination of 12 steroids by isotope dilution liquid chromatography-photospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. Clin Chim Acta 2006;372(1-2):76-82
51. Gotelli GR, Wall JH, Kabra PM, Marton LJ. Fluorometric liquidchromatographic determination of serum cortisol. Clin Chem 1981;27(3):441-3
52. Gore M, Lester E. Comparison of a fluorimetric method and a competitive protein binding assay kit for the determination of plasma hydroxycorticosteroids. Ann Clin Biochem 1975;12(4):160-2
53. O'neill PA, Davies I, Fullerton KJ, Bennett D. Stress hormone and blood glucose response following acute stroke in the elderly. Stroke 1991;22(7):842-7
54. Mitchell AJ. Clinical implications of poststroke hypothalamo-pituitary adrenal axis dysfunction: A critical literature review. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 1997;6(6):377-88
55. Dekosky ST, Scheff SW, Cotman CW. Elevated corticosterone levels. A possible cause of reduced axon sprouting in aged animals. Neuroendocrinology 1984;38(1): 33-8
56. Aimaretti G, Ambrosio MR, Di Somma C, et al. Traumatic brain injury and subarachnoid haemorrhage are conditions at high risk for hypopituitarism: Screening study at 3 months after the brain injury. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2004;61(3):320-6
57. Slowik A, Turaj W, Pankiewicz J, et al. Hypercortisolemia in acute stroke is related to the inflammatory response. J Neurol Sci 2002;196(1-2):27-32
58. Olsson T, Astrom M, Eriksson S, Forssell A. Hypercortisolism revealed by the dexamethasone suppression test in patients [corrected] with acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 1989;20(12):1685-90
59. Olsson T. Urinary free cortisol excretion shortly after ischaemic stroke. J Intern Med 1990;228(2):177-81
60. Marklund N, Peltonen M, Nilsson TK, Olsson T. Low and high circulating cortisol levels predict mortality and cognitive dysfunction early after stroke. J Intern Med 2004;256(1):15-21
61. Christensen H, Boysen G, Johannesen HH. Serum-cortisol reflects severity and mortality in acute stroke. J Neurol Sci 2004;217(2): 175-80
62. Lueken U, Leisse M, Mattes K, et al. Altered tonic and phasic cortisol secretion following unilateral stroke. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2009;34(3): 402-12
63. Nickel CH, Bingisser R, Morgenthaler NG. The role of copeptin as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for risk stratification in the emergency department. BMC Med 2012;10:7
64. Katan M, Morgenthaler N, Widmer I, et al. Copeptin, a stable peptide derived from the vasopressin precursor, correlates with the individual stress level. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 2008;29(3):341-6
65. Darzy KH, Dixit KC, Shalet SM, et al. Circadian secretion pattern of copeptin, the C-Terminal vasopressin precursor fragment. Clin Chem 2010;56(7):1190-1
66. Morgenthaler NG, Struck J, Alonso C, Bergmann A. Assay for the measurement of copeptin, a stable peptide derived from the precursor of vasopressin. Clin Chem 2006; 52(1):112-19
67. Struck J, Morgenthaler NG, Bergmann A. Copeptin, a stable peptide derived from the vasopressin precursor, is elevated in serum of sepsis patients. Peptides 2005;26(12): 2500-4
68. Katan M, Fluri F, Morgenthaler NG, et al. Copeptin: A novel, independent prognostic marker in patients with ischemic stroke. Ann Neurol 2009;66(6):799-808
69. Katan M, Nigro N, Fluri F, et al. Stress hormones predict cerebrovascular re-events after transient ischemic attacks. Neurology 2011;76(6):563-6
70. Chehab O, Ouertani M, Chaieb K, et al. Hormonal status of cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in an elderly Tunisian population. CR Biol 2007; 330(10):755-63
71. Thijs L, Fagard R, Forette F, et al. Are low dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate levels predictive for cardiovascular diseases? A review of prospective and retrospective studies. Acta Cardiol 2003;58(5):403-10
72. Ohlsson C, Labrie F, Barrett-Connor E, et al. Low serum levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate predict all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in elderly Swedish men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010;95(9):4406-14
73. Wade CE, Lindberg JS, Cockrell JL, et al. Upon-Admission adrenal steroidogenesis is adapted to the degree of illness in intensive care unit patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988;67(2):223-7
74. Pappa T, Vemmos K, Saltiki K, et al. Severity and outcome of acute stroke in women: Relation to adrenal sex steroid levels. Metabolism 2012;61(1):84-91
75. Blum CA, Mueller C, Schuetz P, et al. Prognostic value of dehydroepiandrosteronesulfate and other parameters of adrenal function in acute ischemic stroke. PLoS One 2013;8(5):e63224
76. Hjemdahl P. Plasma catecholamines- analytical challenges and physiological limitations. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993;7(2):307-53
77. Eisenhofer G, Kopin IJ, Goldstein DS. Catecholamine metabolism: A contemporary view with implications for physiology and medicine. Pharmacol Rev 2004;56(3):331-49
78. Chamorro A, Amaro S, Vargas M, et al. Catecholamines, infection, and death in acute ischemic stroke. J Neurol Sci 2007; 252(1):29-35
79. Sander D, Winbeck K, Klingelhofer J, et al. Prognostic relevance of pathological sympathetic activation after acute thromboembolic stroke. Neurology 2001; 57(5):833-8
80. Feibel JH, Hardy PM, Campbell RG, et al. Prognostic value of the stress response following stroke. JAMA 1977;238(13): 1374-6
81. Makikallio AM, Makikallio TH, Korpelainen JT, et al. Natriuretic peptides and mortality after stroke. Stroke 2005; 36(5):1016-20
82. Levin ER, Gardner DG, Samson WK. Natriuretic peptides. N Engl J Med 1998; 339(5):321-8
83. Richards AM, Mcdonald D, Fitzpatrick MA, et al. Atrial natriuretic hormone has biological effects in man at physiological plasma concentrations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988;67(6):1134-9
84. De Lemos JA, Mcguire DK, Drazner MH. B-Type natriuretic peptide in cardiovascular disease. Lancet 2003;362(9380):316-22
85. Luchner A, Schunkert H. Interactions between the sympathetic nervous system and the cardiac natriuretic peptide system. Cardiovasc Res 2004;63(3):443-9
86. Sudoh T, Kangawa K, Minamino N, Matsuo H. A new natriuretic peptide in porcine brain. Nature 1988;332(6159): 78-81
87. Mukoyama M, Nakao K, Hosoda K, et al. Brain natriuretic peptide as a novel cardiac hormone in humans. Evidence for an exquisite dual natriuretic peptide system, atrial natriuretic peptide and brain natriuretic peptide. J Clin Invest 1991; 87(4):1402-12
88. Berendes E, Walter M, Cullen P, et al. Secretion of brain natriuretic peptide in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage. Lancet 1997;349(9047):245-9
89. Espiner EA, Richards AM, Yandle TG, Nicholls MG. Natriuretic hormones. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1995; 24(3):481-509
90. Goetz KL. Physiology and pathophysiology of atrial peptides. Am J Physiol 1988; 254(1 Pt 1):E1-15
91. Raine AE, Erne P, Burgisser E, et al. Atrial natriuretic peptide and atrial pressure in patients with congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 1986;315(9):533-7
92. Yasue H, Obata K, Okumura K, et al. Increased secretion of atrial natriuretic polypeptide from the left ventricle in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. J Clin Invest 1989;83(1):46-51
93. Antunes-Rodrigues J, Machado BH, Andrade HA, et al. Carotid-Aortic and renal baroreceptors mediate the atrial natriuretic peptide release induced by blood volume expansion. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89(15):6828-31
94. Morgenthaler NG, Struck J, Thomas B, Bergmann A. Immunoluminometric assay for the midregion of pro-Atrial natriuretic peptide in human plasma. Clin Chem 2004;50(1):234-6
95. Laskowitz DT, Kasner SE, Saver J, et al. Clinical usefulness of a biomarker-based diagnostic test for acute stroke: The Biomarker Rapid Assessment in Ischemic Injury (BRAIN) study. Stroke 2009;40(1):77-85
96. Yip HK, Sun CK, Chang LT, et al. Time course and prognostic value of plasma levels of N-Terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide in patients after ischemic stroke. Circ J 2006;70(4):447-52
97. James ML, Blessing R, Phillips-Bute BG, et al. S100B and brain natriuretic peptide predict functional neurological outcome after intracerebral haemorrhage. Biomarkers 2009;14(6):388-94
98. Koenig MA, Puttgen HA, Prabhakaran V, et al. B-Type natriuretic peptide as a marker for heart failure in patients with acute stroke. Intensive Care Med 2007;33(9): 1587-93
99. Shibazaki K, Kimura K, Okada Y, et al. Plasma brain natriuretic peptide as an independent predictor of in-hospital mortality after acute ischemic stroke. Int Med 2009;48(18):1601-6
100. Gupta YK, Gupta M, Kohli K. Neuroprotective role of melatonin in oxidative stress vulnerable brain. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2003;47(4):373-86
101. Brzezinski A. Melatonin in humans. N Engl J Med 1997;336(3):186-95
102. Skaper SD, Floreani M, Ceccon M, et al. Excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and the neuroprotective potential of melatonin. Ann NY Acad Sci 1999;890:107-18
103. Atanassova PA, Terzieva DD, Dimitrov BD. Impaired nocturnal melatonin in acute phase of ischaemic stroke: Cross-sectional matched case-control analysis. J Neuroendocrinol 2009;21(7):657-63
104. Sewerynek E. Melatonin and the cardiovascular system. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 2002;23(Suppl 1):79-83
105. Chung SY, Han SH. Melatonin attenuates kainic acid-induced hippocampal neurodegeneration and oxidative stress through microglial inhibition. J Pineal Res 2003;34(2):95-102
106. Manev H, Uz T, Kharlamov A, Joo JY. Increased brain damage after stroke or excitotoxic seizures in melatonin-deficient rats. FASEB J 1996;10(13):1546-51
107. Kilic E, Ozdemir YG, Bolay H, et al. Pinealectomy aggravates and melatonin administration attenuates brain damage in focal ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1999;19(5):511-16
108. Shinozuka K, Staples M, Borlongan CV. Melatonin-based therapeutics for neuroprotection in stroke. Int J Mol Sci 2013;14(5):8924-47
109. Pei Z, Pang SF, Cheung RT. Pretreatment with melatonin reduces volume of cerebral infarction in a rat middle cerebral artery occlusion stroke model. J Pineal Res 2002; 32(3):168-72
110. Pei Z, Pang SF, Cheung RT. Administration of melatonin after onset of ischemia reduces the volume of cerebral infarction in a rat middle cerebral artery occlusion stroke model. Stroke 2003;34(3): 770-5
111. Lee EJ, Lee MY, Chen HY, et al. Melatonin attenuates gray and white matter damage in a mouse model of transient focal cerebral ischemia. J Pineal Res 2005;38(1): 42-52
112. Lee MY, Kuan YH, Chen HY, et al. Intravenous administration of melatonin reduces the intracerebral cellular inflammatory response following transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats. J Pineal Res 2007;42(3):297-309
113. Kondoh T, Uneyama H, Nishino H, Torii K. Melatonin reduces cerebral edema formation caused by transient forebrain ischemia in rats. Life Sci 2002;72(4-5): 583-90
114. Macleod MR, O'collins T, Horky LL, et al. Systematic review and meta-Analysis of the efficacy of melatonin in experimental stroke. J Pineal Res 2005;38(1):35-41
115. Borlongan CV, Sumaya I, Moss D, et al. Melatonin-secreting pineal gland: A novel tissue source for neural transplantation therapy in stroke. Cell Transplant 2003; 12(3):225-34
116. Manev H, Uz T. The role of the light-dark cycle and melatonin in stroke outcome. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 1998;7(3):165-7
117. Kalmijn S, Janssen JA, Pols HA, et al. A prospective study on circulating insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), IGF-binding proteins, and cognitive function in the elderly. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85(12):4551-5
118. De Smedt A, Brouns R, Uyttenboogaart M, et al. Insulin-like growth factor I serum levels influence ischemic stroke outcome. Stroke 2011;42(8):2180-5
119. Kooijman R, Sarre S, Michotte Y, De Keyser J
120. Wilczak N, Elting JW, Chesik D, et al. Intravenous tissue plasminogen activator in patients with stroke increases the bioavailability of insulin-like growth factor-1. Stroke 2006;37(9):2368-71
121. Denti L, Annoni V, Cattadori E, et al. Insulin-like growth factor 1 as a predictor of ischemic stroke outcome in the elderly. Am J Med 2004;117(5):312-17
122. Schwab S, Spranger M, Krempien S, et al. Plasma insulin-like growth factor I and IGF binding protein 3 levels in patients with acute cerebral ischemic injury. Stroke 1997;28:1744-8
123. El Husseini N, Laskowitz DT. Clinical application of blood biomarkers in cerebrovascular disease. Expert Rev Neurother 2010;10(2):189-203
124. Tu WJ, Dong X, Zhao SJ, et al. Prognostic value of plasma neuroendocrine biomarkers in patients with acute ischaemic stroke. J Neuroendocrinol 2013;25(9):771-8
125. Schneider HJ, Schneider M, Kreitschmann-Andermahr I, et al. Structured assessment of hypopituitarism after traumatic brain injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage in 1242 patients: The German interdisciplinary database. J Neurotrauma 2011;28(9):1693-8
126. Poll EM, Bostrom A, Burgel U, et al. Cortisol dynamics in the acute phase of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: Associations with disease severity and outcome. J Neurotrauma 2010;27(1): 189-95
127. Jovanovic V, Pekic S, Stojanovic M, et al. Neuroendocrine dysfunction in patients recovering from subarachnoid hemorrhage. Hormones 2010;9(3):235-44
128. Parenti G, Cecchi PC, Ragghianti B, et al. Evaluation of the anterior pituitary function in the acute phase after spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Endocrinol Invest 2011;34(5):361-5
129. Kreitschmann-Andermahr I, Hoff C, Saller B, et al. Prevalence of pituitary deficiency in patients after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89(10):4986-92
130. Tanriverdi F, Dagli AT, Karaca Z, et al. High risk of pituitary dysfunction due to aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage: A prospective investigation of anterior pituitary function in the acute phase and 12 months after the event. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2007;67(6):931-7
131. Schneider HJ, Kreitschmann-Andermahr I, Ghigo E, et al. Hypothalamo-pituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: A systematic review. JAMA 2007;298(12): 1429-38
132. Dimopoulou I, Kouyialis AT, Tzanella M, et al. High incidence of neuroendocrine dysfunction in long-Term survivors of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2004;35(12):2884-9
133. Karaca Z, Tanriverdi F, Dagli AT, et al. Three years prospective investigation of pituitary functions following subarachnoid haemorrhage. Pituitary 2013;16(1):76-82
134. Mangieri P, Suzuki K, Ferreira M, et al. Evaluation of pituitary and thyroid hormones in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage due to ruptured intracranial aneurysm. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2003;61(1): 14-19
135. Schneider HJ, Stalla GK, Buchfelder M. Expert meeting: Hypopituitarism after traumatic brain injury and subarachnoid haemorrhage. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2006; 148(4):449-56
136. Urra X, Obach V, Chamorro A. Stroke induced immunodepression syndrome: From bench to bedside. Curr Mol Med 2009; 9(2):195-202
137. Harms H, Reimnitz P, Bohner G, et al. Influence of stroke localization on autonomic activation, immunodepression, and post-stroke infection. Cerebrovasc Dis 2011;32(6):552-60
138. Urra X, Cervera A, Obach V, et al. Monocytes are major players in the prognosis and risk of infection after acute stroke. Stroke 2009;40(4):1262-8
139. Fluri F, Morgenthaler NG, Mueller B, et al. Copeptin, procalcitonin and routine inflammatory markers-predictors of infection after stroke. PLoS ONE 2012; 7(10):e48309
140. El Husseini N, Goldstein LB, Peterson ED, et al. Depression and antidepressant use after stroke and transient ischemic attack. Stroke 2012;43(6):1609-16
141. El Husseini N, Laskowitz DT, Zimmer LO, et al. Letter by El Husseini et al regarding article, 'What causes disability after transient ischemic attack and minor stroke?'. Stroke 2012;43(12):e180
142. Heisler LK, Pronchuk N, Nonogaki K, et al. Serotonin activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-Adrenal axis via serotonin 2C receptor stimulation. J Neurosci 2007;27(26):6956-64
143. Noonan K, Carey LM, Crewther SG. Meta-Analyses indicate associations between neuroendocrine activation, deactivation in neurotrophic and neuroimaging markers in depression after stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2013;22(7):e124-35
144. Lipsey JR, Robinson RG, Pearlson GD, et al. The dexamethasone suppression test and mood following stroke. Am J Psychiatry 1985;142(3):318-23
145. Finklestein S, Benowitz LI, Baldessarini RJ, et al. Mood, vegetative disturbance, and dexamethasone suppression test after stroke. Ann Neurol 1982;12(5):463-8
146. Von Bahr C, Ursing C, Yasui N, et al. Fluvoxamine but not citalopram increases serum melatonin in healthy subjects- an indication that cytochrome P450 CYP1A2 and CYP2C19 hydroxylate melatonin. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2000;56(2):123-7
147. Mendlewicz J, Linkowski P, Branchey L, et al. Abnormal 24 h pattern of melatonin secretion in depression. Lancet 1979; 2(8156-8157):1362
148. Carvalho LA, Gorenstein C, Moreno R, et al. Effect of antidepressants on melatonin metabolite in depressed patients. J Psychopharmacol 2009;23(3):315-21
149. Crasson M, Kjiri S, Colin A, et al. Serum melatonin and urinary 6-sulfatoxymelatonin in major depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2004;29(1):1-12
150. Sunami E, Usuda K, Nishiyama Y, et al. A preliminary study of fluvoxamine maleate on depressive state and serum melatonin levels in patients after cerebral infarction. Intern Med 2012;51(10):1187-93
151. Sapolsky RM. Glucocorticoid toxicity in the hippocampus: Temporal aspects of neuronal vulnerability. Brain Res 1985;359(1-2): 300-5
152. Sapolsky RM, Pulsinelli WA. Glucocorticoids potentiate ischemic injury to neurons: Therapeutic implications. Science 1985;229(4720):1397-400
153. Sapolsky RM, Krey LC, Mcewen BS. The neuroendocrinology of stress and aging: The glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis. Endocr Rev 1986;7(3):284-301
154. De Reuck J, Vandekerckhove T, Bosma G, et al. Steroid treatment in acute ischaemic stroke. A comparative retrospective study of 556 cases. Eur Neurol 1988;28(2):70-2
155. Ay H, Koroshetz WJ, Benner T, et al. Neuroanatomic correlates of stroke-related myocardial injury. Neurology 2006;66(9): 1325-9
156. Barber M, Morton JJ, Macfarlane PW, et al. Elevated troponin levels are associated with sympathoadrenal activation in acute ischaemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 2007; 23(4):260-6
157. Christensen H, Boysen G, Christensen AF, Johannesen HH. Insular lesions, ECG abnormalities, and outcome in acute stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005;76(2): 269-71
158. Meyer S, Strittmatter M, Fischer C, et al. Lateralization in autonomic dysfunction in ischemic stroke involving the insular cortex. Neuroreport 2004;15(2):357-61
159. Guiraud V, Amor MB, Mas JL, Touze E. Triggers of ischemic stroke: A systematic review. Stroke 2010;41(11):2669-77
160. House JS, Landis KR, Umberson D. Social relationships and health. Science 1988; 241(4865):540-5
161. Jood K, Redfors P, Rosengren A, et al. Self-perceived psychological stress and ischemic stroke: A case-control study. BMC Med 2009;7:53
162. Kornerup H, Osler M, Boysen G, et al. Major life events increase the risk of stroke but not of myocardial infarction: Results from the Copenhagen City Heart Study. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2010;17(1): 113-18
163. Balkaya M, Prinz V, Custodis F, et al. Stress worsens endothelial function and ischemic stroke via glucocorticoids. Stroke 2011;42(11):3258-64
164. Harmsen P, Rosengren A, Tsipogianni A, Wilhelmsen L. Risk factors for stroke in middle-Aged men in Goteborg, Sweden. Stroke 1990;21(2):223-9
165. Carasso R, Yehuda S, Ben-Uriah Y. Personality type, life events and sudden cerebrovascular attack. Int J Neurosci 1981; 14(3-4):223-5
166. Madrigal JL, Caso JR, De Cristobal J, et al. Effect of subacute and chronic immobilisation stress on the outcome of permanent focal cerebral ischaemia in rats. Brain Res 2003;979(1-2):137-45
167. Caso JR, Hurtado O, Pereira MP, et al. Colonic bacterial translocation as a possible factor in stress-worsening experimental stroke outcome. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2009;296(4):R979-85
168. Sugo N, Hurn PD, Morahan MB, et al. Social stress exacerbates focal cerebral ischemia in mice. Stroke 2002;33(6):1660-4
169. Cam E, Gao B, Imbach L, et al. Sleep deprivation before stroke is neuroprotective: A pre-ischemic conditioning related to sleep rebound. Exp Neurol 2013;247:673-9
170. James ML, Wang H, Venkatraman T, et al. Brain natriuretic peptide improves long-Term functional recovery after acute CNS injury in mice. J Neurotrauma 2010; 27(1):217-28
171. Sandercock PA, Soane T. Corticosteroids for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011(9):CD000064
172. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01863277. Available from: Http:// www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/ NCT01863277?term=melatonin+AND +stroke&rank=1