Dietary fats and health: Dietary recommendations in the context of scientific evidence

Advances in Nutrition

Volumn 4, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 294-302

  Lawrence, Glen D ^a  

^a LONG ISLAND UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHOLESTEROL; FAT INTAKE; FATTY ACID; FRUCTOSE; SWEETENING AGENT; UNSATURATED FATTY ACID;

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLOOD; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; COMPLICATION; DIET; FAT INTAKE; GENETICS; HUMAN; LIPID PEROXIDATION; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW;

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHOLESTEROL; DIET; DIETARY FATS; FATTY ACIDS; FATTY ACIDS, UNSATURATED; FRUCTOSE; HUMANS; LIPID PEROXIDATION; SWEETENING AGENTS;

EID: 84891454367     PISSN: 21618313     EISSN: 21565376     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3945/an.113.003657     Document Type: Review

References (133)

1. Kannel WB, Dawber TR, Kagan A, Revotskie N, Stokes J. Factors of risk in the development of coronary heart disease: six-year followup experience. Ann Intern Med. 1961; 55: 33-50.
2. Steinberg D. Thematic review series: the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. An interpretive history of the cholesterol controversy: part II: the early evidence linking hypercholesterolemia to coronary disease in humans. J Lipid Res. 2005; 46: 179-90.
3. Libby P. Changing concepts of atherogenesis. J Intern Med. 2000; 247: 349-58.
4. Hegsted DM, McGandy RB, Myers ML, Stare FJ. Quantitative effects of dietary fat on serum cholesterol in man. Am J Clin Nutr. 1965; 17: 281-95.
5. Keys A, Anderson JT, Grande F. Prediction of serum-cholesterol responses of man to changes in fats in the diet. Lancet. 1957; 273: 959-66.
6. Morel DW, Hessler JR, Chisolm GM. Low density lipoprotein cytotoxicity induced by free radical peroxidation of lipid. J Lipid Res. 1983; 24: 1070-6.
7. Steinbrecher UP, Parthasarathy S, Leake DS, Witztum JL, Steinberg D. Modification of low density lipoprotein by endothelial cells involves lipid peroxidation and degradation of low density lipoprotein phospholipids. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1984; 81: 3883-7.
8. Navab M, Ananthramaiah GM, Reddy ST, Van Lenten BJ, Ansell BJ, Fonarow GC, Vahabzadeh K, Hama S, Hough G, Kamranpour N, et al. The oxidation hypothesis of atherogenesis: the role of oxidized phospholipids and HDL. J Lipid Res. 2004; 45: 993-1007.
9. Steinberg D. Thematic review series: the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: an interpretive history of the cholesterol controversy, part III: mechanistically defining the role of hyperlipidemia. J Lipid Res. 2005; 46: 2037-51.
10. Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester AD, Katan MB. Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003; 77: 1146-55.
11. Brown MS, Goldstein JL. The SREBP pathway: regulation of cholesterol metabolism by proteolysis of a membrane-bound transcription factor. Cell. 1997; 89: 331-40.
12. Lopez JM, Bennett MK, Sanchez HB, Rosenfeld JM, Osborne TF. Sterol regulation of acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase: a mechanism for coordinate control of cellular lipid. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996; 93: 1049-53.
13. Jump DB. N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid regulation of hepatic gene transcription. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2008; 19: 242-7.
14. Xu J, Nakamura MT, Cho HP, Clarke SD. Sterol regulatory element binding protein-1 expression is suppressed by dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids. A mechanism for the coordinate suppression of lipogenic genes by polyunsaturated fats. J Biol Chem. 1999; 274: 23577-83.
15. Covington DK, Briscoe CA, Brown AJ, Jayawickreme CK. The G-proteincoupled receptor 40 family (GPR40-GPR43) and its role in nutrient sensing. Biochem Soc Trans. 2006; 34: 770-3.
16. Bordoni A, Di Nunzio M, Danesi F, Biagi PL. Polyunsaturated fatty acids: from diet to binding to ppars and other nuclear receptors. Genes Nutr. 2006; 1: 95-106.
17. Clarke SD. The multi-dimensional regulation of gene expression by fatty acids: polyunsaturated fats as nutrient sensors. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2004; 15: 13-8.
18. Curti ML, Jacob P, Borges MC, Rogero MM, Ferreira SR. Studies of gene variants related to inflammation, oxidative stress, dyslipidemia, and obesity: implications for a nutrigenetic approach. J Obes 2011; 2011: 497401.
19. Ichimura A, Hirasawa A, Hara T, Tsujimoto G. Free fatty acid receptors act as nutrient sensors to regulate energy homeostasis. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 2009; 89: 82-8.
20. Hara T, Hirasawa A, Ichimura A, Kimura I, Tsujimoto G. Free fatty acid receptors FFAR1 and GPR120 as novel therapeutic targets for metabolic disorders. J Pharm Sci. 2011; 100: 3594-601.
21. Brown MS, Goldstein JL. A receptor-mediated pathway for cholesterol homeostasis. Science. 1986; 232: 34-47.
22. Goldstein JL, Brown MS. Molecular medicine. The cholesterol quartet. Science. 2001; 292: 1310-2.
23. Mishra SK, Watkins SC, Traub LM. The autosomal recessive hypercholesterolemia (ARH) protein interfaces directly with the clathrincoat machinery. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002; 99: 16099-104.
24. Liyanage KE, Burnett JR, Hooper AJ, van Bockxmeer FM. Familial hypercholesterolemia: epidemiology, Neolithic origins and modern geographic distribution. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 2011; 48: 1-18.
25. Fahed AC, Nemer GM. Familial hypercholesterolemia: the lipids or the genes? Nutr Metab (Lond). 2011; 8: 23.
26. Cheung MC, Brown BG, Wolf AC, Albers JJ. Altered particle size distribution of apolipoprotein A-I-containing lipoproteins in subjects with coronary artery disease. J Lipid Res. 1991; 32: 383-94.
27. Stampfer MJ, Krauss RM, Ma J, Blanche PJ, Holl LG, Sacks FM, Hennekens CH. A prospective study of triglyceride level, low-density lipoprotein particle diameter, and risk of myocardial infarction. JAMA. 1996; 276: 882-8.
28. Gardner CD, Fortmann SP, Krauss RM. Association of small low-density lipoprotein particles with the incidence of coronary artery disease in men and women. JAMA. 1996; 276: 875-81.
29. Lamarche B, St-Pierre AC, Ruel IL, Cantin B, Dagenais GR, Despres JP. A prospective, population-based study of low density lipoprotein particle size as a risk factor for ischemic heart disease in men. Can J Cardiol. 2001; 17: 859-65.
30. Bossé Y, Perusse L, Vohl MC. Genetics of LDL particle heterogeneity: from genetic epidemiology to DNA-based variations. J Lipid Res. 2004; 45: 1008-26.
31. Anuurad E, Enkhmaa B, Berglund L. Enigmatic role of lipoprotein(a) in cardiovascular disease. Clin Transl Sci. 2010; 3: 327-32.
32. Tsimikas S, Clopton P, Brilakis ES, Marcovina SM, Khera A, Miller ER, de Lemos JA, Witztum JL. Relationship of oxidized phospholipids on apolipoprotein B-100 particles to race/ethnicity, apolipoprotein(a) isoform size, and cardiovascular risk factors: results from the Dallas Heart Study. Circulation. 2009; 119: 1711-9.
33. Lamarche B, Lemieux I, Despres JP. The small, dense LDL phenotype and the risk of coronary heart disease: epidemiology, patho-physiology and therapeutic aspects. Diabetes Metab. 1999; 25: 199-211.
34. Ohmura H, Mokuno H, Sawano M, Hatsumi C, Mitsugi Y, Watanabe Y, Daida H, Yamaguchi H. Lipid compositional differences of small, dense low-density lipoprotein particle influence its oxidative susceptibility: possible implication of increased risk of coronary artery disease in subjects with phenotype B. Metabolism. 2002; 51: 1081-7.
35. Carmena R, Duriez P, Fruchart JC. Atherogenic lipoprotein particles in atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2004; 109 23 Suppl 1: III2-7.
36. Chatterjee C, Sparks DL. Hepatic lipase, high density lipoproteins, and hypertriglyceridemia. Am J Pathol. 2011; 178: 1429-33.
37. Yasuda T, Ishida T, Rader DJ. Update on the role of endothelial lipase in high-density lipoprotein metabolism, reverse cholesterol transport, and atherosclerosis. Circ J. 2010; 74: 2263-70.
38. Kono M, Tanaka T, Tanaka M, Vedhachalam C, Chetty PS, Nguyen D, Dhanasekaran P, Lund-Katz S, Phillips MC, Saito H. Disruption of the C-terminal helix by single amino acid deletion is directly responsible for impaired cholesterol efflux ability of apolipoprotein A-I Nichinan. J Lipid Res. 2010; 51: 809-18.
39. Kappelle PJ, van Tol A, Wolffenbuttel BH, Dullaart RP. Cholesteryl ester transfer protein inhibition in cardiovascular risk management: ongoing trials will end the confusion. Cardiovasc Ther. 2011; 29: e89-99.
40. Gordon SM, Hofmann S, Askew DS, Davidson WS. High density lipoprotein: it's not just about lipid transport anymore. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2011; 22: 9-15.
41. Costa LG, Giordano G, Furlong CE. Pharmacological and dietary modulators of paraoxonase 1 (PON1) activity and expression: the hunt goes on. Biochem Pharmacol. 2011; 81: 337-44.
42. Tomás M, Senti M, Elosua R, Vila J, Sala J, Masia R, Marrugat J. Interaction between the Gln-Arg 192 variants of the paraoxonase gene and oleic acid intake as a determinant of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and paraoxonase activity. Eur J Pharmacol. 2001; 432: 121-8.
43. Nguyen SD, Sok DE. Preferential inhibition of paraoxonase activity of human paraoxonase 1 by negatively charged lipids. J Lipid Res. 2004; 45: 2211-20.
44. Besler C, Heinrich K, Rohrer L, Doerries C, Riwanto M, Shih DM, Chroni A, Yonekawa K, Stein S. Mechanisms underlying adverse effects of HDL on eNOS-activating pathways in patients with coronary artery disease. J Clin Invest. 2011; 121: 2693-708.
45. Reaven P, Parthasarathy S, Grasse BJ, Miller E, Steinberg D, Witztum JL. Effects of oleate-rich and linoleate-rich diets on the susceptibility of low density lipoprotein to oxidative modification in mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects. J Clin Invest. 1993; 91: 668-76.
46. Subbanagounder G, Leitinger N, Schwenke DC, Wong JW, Lee H, Rizza C, Watson AD, Faull KF, Fogelman AM, Berliner JA. Determinants of bioactivity of oxidized phospholipids. Specific oxidized fatty acyl groups at the sn-2 position. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000; 20: 2248-54.
47. Thijssen MA, Mensink RP. Fatty acids and atherosclerosis risk. In: Eckardstein AV, editor. Atherosclerosis: diet and drugs. Berlin-Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag, 2005: 165-94.
48. Abedin M, Tintut Y, Demer LL. Vascular calcification: mechanisms and clinical ramifications. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004; 24: 1161-70.
49. Demer LL, Tintut Y. Mineral exploration: search for the mechanism of vascular calcification and beyond: the 2003 Jeffrey M. Hoeg Award lecture. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003; 23: 1739-43.
50. Gatellier P, Sante-Lhoutellier V, Portanguen S, Kondjoyan A. Use of meat fluorescence emission as a marker of oxidation promoted by cooking. Meat Sci. 2009; 83: 651-6.
51. Conchillo A, Ansorena D, Astiasaran I. Combined effect of cooking (grilling and roasting) and chilling storage (with and without air) on lipid and cholesterol oxidation in chicken breast. J Food Prot. 2003; 66: 840-6.
52. Brown ED, Morris VC, Rhodes DG, Sinha R, Levander OA. Urinary malondialdehyde-equivalents during ingestion of meat cooked at high or low temperatures. Lipids. 1995; 30: 1053-6.
53. Cejas P, Casado E, Belda-Iniesta C, De Castro J, Espinosa E, Redondo A, Sereno M, Garcia-Cabezas MA, Vara JA. Implications of oxidative stress and cell membrane lipid peroxidation in human cancer (Spain). Cancer Causes Control. 2004; 15: 707-19.
54. Lankin VZ, Lisina MO, Arzamastseva NE, Konovalova GG, Nedosugova LV, Kaminnyi AI, Tikhaze AK, Ageev FT, Kukharchuk V, Belenkov YN. Oxidative stress in atherosclerosis and diabetes. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2005; 140: 41-3.
55. Birlouez-Aragon I, Saavedra G, Tessier FJ, Galinier A, Ait-Ameur L, Lacoste F, Niamba CN, Alt N, Somoza V, Lecerf JM. A diet based on high-heat-treated foods promotes risk factors for diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010; 91: 1220-6.
56. Drewnowski A, Almiron-Roig E. Human perceptions and preferences for fat-rich foods. In: Montmayeur JP, le Coutre J, editors. Fat detection: taste, texture, and post ingestive effects. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; 2010. p. 265-89.
57. Lawrence GD, Mavi A, Meral K. Promotion by phosphate of Fe(III)-and Cu(II)-catalyzed autoxidation of fructose. Carbohydr Res. 2008; 343: 626-35.
58. Berlanga J, Cibrian D, Guillen I, Freyre F, Alba JS, Lopez-Saura P, Merino N, Aldama A, Quintela AM, Triana ME, et al. Methylglyoxal administration induces diabetes-like microvascular changes and perturbs the healing process of cutaneous wounds. Clin Sci (Lond). 2005; 109: 83-95.
59. Ogawa S, Nakayama K, Nakayama M, Mori T, Matsushima M, Okamura M, Senda M, Nako K, Miyata T, Ito S. Methylglyoxal is a predictor in type 2 diabetic patients of intima-media thickening and elevation of blood pressure. Hypertension. 2010; 56: 471-6.
60. Yu PH. Deamination of methylamine and angiopathy; toxicity of formaldehyde, oxidative stress and relevance to protein glycoxidation in diabetes. J Neural Transm Suppl. 1998; 52: 201-16.
61. Mozaffarian D, Micha R, Wallace S. Effects on coronary heart disease of increasing polyunsaturated fat in place of saturated fat: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS Med. 2010; 7: e1000252.
62. Ramsden CE, Hibbeln JR, Majchrzak SF, Davis JM. n-6 fatty acidspecific and mixed polyunsaturate dietary interventions have different effects on CHD risk: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Nutr. 2010; 104: 1586-600.
63. Strayer D, Belcher M, Dawson T, Delaney B, Fine J, Flickinger B, Friedman P, Heckel C, Hughes J, Kincs F, et al. Food fats and oils. Washington, DC: Institute of Shortening and Edible Oils, Inc, 2006: 44.
64. Mente A, de Koning L, Shannon HS, Anand SS. A systematic review of the evidence supporting a causal link between dietary factors and coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med. 2009; 169: 659-69.
65. Yavin E, Brand A, Green P. Docosahexaenoic acid abundance in the brain: a biodevice to combat oxidative stress. Nutr Neurosci. 2002; 5: 149-57.
66. Romieu I, Garcia-Esteban R, Sunyer J, Rios C, Alcaraz-Zubeldia M, Velasco SR, Holguin F. The effect of supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on markers of oxidative stress in elderly exposed to PM(2.5). Environ Health Perspect. 2008; 116: 1237-42.
67. Kuczynski B, Reo NV. Evidence that plasmalogen is protective against oxidative stress in the rat brain. Neurochem Res. 2006; 31: 639-56.
68. Lawrence GD. The fats of life: essential fatty acids in health and disease. Piscataway (NJ): Rutgers University Press, 2010.
69. Prickett JD, Trentham DE, Robinson DR. Dietary fish oil augments the induction of arthritis in rats immunized with type II collagen. J Immunol. 1984; 132: 725-9.
70. Lawrence GD. Effect of dietary lipids on adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats. Nutr Res. 1990; 10: 283-90.
71. Galarraga B, Ho M, Youssef HM, Hill A, McMahon H, Hall C, Ogston S, Nuki G, Belch JJ. Cod liver oil (n-3 fatty acids) as an non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug sparing agent in rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2008; 47: 665-9.
72. Lau CS, Morley KD, Belch JJ. Effects of fish oil supplementation on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug requirement in patients with mild rheumatoid arthritis-a double-blind placebo controlled study. Br J Rheumatol. 1993; 32: 982-9.
73. Kremer JM, Lawrence DA, Petrillo GF, Litts LL, Mullaly PM, Rynes RI, Stocker RP, Parhami N, Greenstein NS, Fuchs BR, et al. Effects of high-dose fish oil on rheumatoid arthritis after stopping nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Clinical and immune correlates. Arthritis Rheum. 1995; 38: 1107-14.
74. Cleland LG, James MJ. Rheumatoid arthritis and the balance of dietary N-6 and N-3 essential fatty acids. Br J Rheumatol. 1997; 36: 513-4.
75. Calder PC. Session 3: Joint Nutrition Society and Irish Nutrition and Dietetic Institute Symposium on 'Nutrition and autoimmune disease' PUFA, inflammatory processes and rheumatoid arthritis. Proc Nutr Soc. 2008; 67: 409-18.
76. Calder PC. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and inflammatory diseases. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006; 83: 1505S-19S.
77. Broughton KS, Johnson CS, Pace BK, Liebman M, Kleppinger KM. Reduced asthma symptoms with n-3 fatty acid ingestion are related to 5-series leukotriene production. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997; 65: 1011-7.
78. Nagakura T, Matsuda S, Shichijyo K, Sugimoto H, Hata K. Dietary supplementation with fish oil rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with bronchial asthma. Eur Respir J. 2000; 16: 861-5.
79. Thornley S, Stewart A, Marshall R, Jackson R. Per capita sugar consumption is associated with severe childhood asthma: an ecological study of 53 countries. Prim Care Respir J. 2011; 20: 75-8.
80. Macrae FA. Fat and calories in colon and breast cancer: from animal studies to controlled clinical trials. Prev Med. 1993; 22: 750-66.
81. Weisburger JH. Dietary fat and risk of chronic disease: mechanistic insights from experimental studies. J Am Diet Assoc. 1997; 97: S16-23.
82. Braden LM, Carroll KK. Dietary polyunsaturated fat in relation to mammary carcinogenesis in rats. Lipids. 1986; 21: 285-8.
83. Carroll KK, Braden LM, Bell JA, Kalamegham R. Fat and cancer. Cancer. 1986; 58: 1818-25.
84. Zock PL, Katan MB. Linoleic acid intake and cancer risk: a review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998; 68: 142-53.
85. Williams CD, Whitley BM, Hoyo C, Grant DJ, Iraggi JD, Newman KA, Gerber L, Taylor LA, McKeever MG, Freedland SJ. A high ratio of dietary n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids is associated with increased risk of prostate cancer. Nutr Res. 2011; 31: 1-8.
86. Wirfält E, Mattisson I, Gullberg B, Olsson H, Berglund G. Fat from different foods show diverging relations with breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women. Nutr Cancer. 2005; 53: 135-43.
87. Bougnoux P, Giraudeau B, Couet C. Diet, cancer, and the lipidome. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2006; 15: 416-21.
88. Woutersen RA, Appel MJ, van Garderen-Hoetmer A, Wijnands MV. Dietary fat and carcinogenesis. Mutat Res. 1999; 443: 111-27.
89. Wang D, Dubois RN. Eicosanoids and cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2010; 10: 181-93.
90. Harris RE. Cyclooxygenase-2 (cox-2) blockade in the chemoprevention of cancers of the colon, breast, prostate, and lung. Inflammopharmacology. 2009; 17: 55-67.
91. Slaga TJ, Klein-Szanto AJ, Triplett LL, Yotti LP, Trosko KE. Skin tumor-promoting activity of benzoyl peroxide, a widely used free radical-generating compound. Science. 1981; 213: 1023-5.
92. Norat T, Bingham S, Ferrari P, Slimani N, Jenab M, Mazuir M, Overvad K, Olsen A, Tjonneland A, Clavel F, et al. Meat, fish, and colorectal cancer risk: the European Prospective Investigation into cancer and nutrition. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005; 97: 906-16.
93. Wood JD, Enser M, Fisher AV, Nute GR, Sheard PR, Richardson RI, Hughes SI, Whittington FM. Fat deposition, fatty acid composition and meat quality: a review. Meat Sci. 2008; 78: 343-58.
94. Smith SB, Gill CA, Lunt DK, Brooks MA. Regulation of fat and fatty acid composition in beef cattle. Asian-Aust. J Anim Sci. 2009; 22: 1225-33.
95. Lijinsky W. Nitrosamines and nitrosamides in the etiology of gastrointestinal cancer. Cancer. 1977; 40: 2446-9.
96. Alexander DD, Morimoto LM, Mink PJ, Cushing CA. A review and meta-analysis of red and processed meat consumption and breast cancer. Nutr Res Rev. 2010; 23: 349-65.
97. Alexander DD, Mink PJ, Cushing CA, Sceurman B. A review and meta-analysis of prospective studies of red and processed meat intake and prostate cancer. Nutr J. 2010; 9: 50.
98. Micha R, Wallace SK, Mozaffarian D. Red and processed meat consumption and risk of incident coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circulation. 2010; 121: 2271-83.
99. Astrup A, Dyerberg J, Elwood P, Hermansen K, Hu FB, Jakobsen MU, Kok FJ, Krauss RM, Lecerf JM, Legrand P, et al. The role of reducing intakes of saturated fat in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: where does the evidence stand in 2010? Am J Clin Nutr. 2011; 93: 684-8.
100. German JB, Gibson RA, Krauss RM, Nestel P, Lamarche B, van Staveren WA, Steijns JM, deGroot LC, Lock AL,Destaillats F. A reappraisal of the impact of dairy foods and milk fat on cardiovascular disease risk. Eur J Nutr. 2009; 48: 191-203.
101. Huth PJ, Park KM. Influence of dairy product and milk fat consumption on cardiovascular disease risk: a review of the evidence. Adv Nutr. 2012; 3: 266-85.
102. Micha R, Mozaffarian D. Saturated fat and cardiometabolic risk factors, coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes: a fresh look at the evidence. Lipids. 2010; 45: 893-905.
103. Volk MG. An examination of the evidence supporting the association of dietary cholesterol and saturated fats with serum cholesterol and development of coronary heart disease. Altern Med Rev. 2007; 12: 228-45.
104. Ng TK, Hayes KC, DeWitt GF, Jegathesan M, Satgunasingam N, Ong AS, Tan D. Dietary palmitic and oleic acids exert similar effects on serum cholesterol and lipoprotein profiles in normocholesterolemic men and women. J Am Coll Nutr. 1992; 11: 383-90.
105. Choudhury N, Tan L, Truswell AS. Comparison of palmolein and olive oil: effects on plasma lipids and vitamin E in young adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995; 61: 1043-51.
106. Kaunitz H, Dayrit CS. Coconut oil consumption and coronary heart disease. Philippine J Coconut Studies. 1992; 17: 18-20.
107. German JB, Dillard CJ. Saturated fats: what dietary intake? Am J Clin Nutr. 2004; 80: 550-9.
108. Schuster GS, Dirksen TR, Ciarlone AE, Burnett GW, Reynolds MT, Lankford MT. Anticaries and antiplaque potential of free-fatty acids in vitro and in vivo. Pharmacol Ther Dent. 1980; 5: 25-33.
109. Müller H, Lindman AS, Brantsaeter AL, Pedersen JI. The serum LDL/HDL cholesterol ratio is influenced more favorably by exchanging saturated with unsaturated fat than by reducing saturated fat in the diet of women. J Nutr. 2003; 133: 78-83.
110. Lamarche B. Review of the effect of dairy products on non-lipid risk factors for cardiovascular disease. J Am Coll Nutr. 2008; 27: 741S-6S.
111. Azadbakht L, Mirmiran P, Esmaillzadeh A, Azizi F. Dairy consumption is inversely associated with the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in Tehranian adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005; 82: 523-30.
112. van Meijl LE, Vrolix R, Mensink RP. Dairy product consumption and the metabolic syndrome. Nutr Res Rev. 2008; 21: 148-57.
113. Elwood PC, Pickering JE, Givens DI, Gallacher JE. The consumption of milk and dairy foods and the incidence of vascular disease and diabetes: an overview of the evidence. Lipids. 2010; 45: 925-39.
114. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Rimm E, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH, Willett WC. Dietary saturated fats and their food sources in relation to the risk of coronary heart disease in women. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999; 70: 1001-8.
115. Dreon DM, Fernstrom HA, Campos H, Blanche P, Williams PT, Krauss RM. Change in dietary saturated fat intake is correlated with change in mass of large low-density-lipoprotein particles in men. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998; 67: 828-36.
116. Nelson GJ, Schmidt PC, Kelley DS. Low-fat diets do not lower plasma cholesterol levels in healthy men compared to high-fat diets with similar fatty acid composition at constant caloric intake. Lipids. 1995; 30: 969-76.
117. Turley ML, Skeaff CM, Mann JI, Cox B. The effect of a low-fat, highcarbohydrate diet on serum high density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1998; 52: 728-32.
118. Dennison BA, Rockwell HL, Baker SL. Excess fruit juice consumption by preschool-aged children is associated with short stature and obesity. Pediatrics. 1997; 99: 15-22.
119. Dennison BA. Fruit juice consumption by infants and children: a review. J Am Coll Nutr. 1996; 15: 4S-11S.
120. Bray GA, Nielsen SJ, Popkin BM. Consumption of high-fructose corn syrup in beverages may play a role in the epidemic of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004; 79: 537-43.
121. Elliott SS, Keim NL, Stern JS, Teff K, Havel PJ. Fructose, weight gain, and the insulin resistance syndrome. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002; 76: 911-22.
122. Le Poul E, Loison C, Struyf S, Springael JY, Lannoy V, Decobecq ME, Brezillon S, Dupriez V, Vassart G, Van Damme J, et al. Functional characterization of human receptors for short chain fatty acids and their role in polymorphonuclear cell activation. J Biol Chem. 2003; 278: 25481-9.
123. Liuba P, Persson J, Luoma J, Ylä-Herttuala S, Pesonen E. Acute infections in children are accompanied by oxidative modification of LDL and decrease of HDL cholesterol, and are followed by thickening of carotid intima-media. Eur Heart J. 2003; 24: 515-21.
124. Reiser S, Hallfrisch J. Michaelis OE 4th, Lazar FL, Martin RE, Prather ES. Isocaloric exchange of dietary starch and sucrose in humans. I. Effects on levels of fasting blood lipids. Am J Clin Nutr. 1979; 32: 1659-69.
125. Bantle JP, Raatz SK, Thomas W, Georgopoulos A. Effects of dietary fructose on plasma lipids in healthy subjects. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000; 72: 1128-34.
126. Solyst JT. Michaelis OE 4th, Reiser S, Ellwood KC, Prather ES. Effect of dietary sucrose in humans on blood uric acid, phosphorus, fructose, and lactic acid responses to a sucrose load. Nutr Metab. 1980; 24: 182-8.
127. Sakai M, Oimomi M, Kasuga M. Experimental studies on the role of fructose in the development of diabetic complications. Kobe J Med Sci. 2002; 48: 125-36.
128. Rebolledo A, Rebolledo OR, Marra CA, Garcia ME, Roldan Palomo AR, Rimorini L, Gagliardino JJ. Early alterations in vascular contractility associated to changes in fatty acid composition and oxidative stress markers in perivascular adipose tissue. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2010; 9: 65-73.
129. Malik VS, Popkin BM, Bray GA, Despres JP, Hu FB. Sugar-sweetened beverages, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease risk. Circulation. 2010; 121: 1356-64.
130. Malik VS, Popkin BM, Bray GA, Despres JP, Willett WC, Hu FB. Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care. 2010; 33: 2477-83.
131. Lim JS, Mietus-Snyder M, Valente A, Schwarz JM, Lustig RH. The role of fructose in the pathogenesis of NAFLD and the metabolic syndrome. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2010; 7: 251-64.
132. Cirillo P, Sautin YY, Kanellis J, Kang DH, Gesualdo L, Nakagawa T, Johnson RJ. Systemic inflammation, metabolic syndrome and progressive renal disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2009; 24: 1384-7.
133. Stanhope KL, Schwarz JM, Keim NL, Griffen SC, Bremer AA, Graham JL, Hatcher B, Cox CL, Dyachenko A, Zhang W, et al. Consuming fructose-sweetened, not glucose-sweetened, beverages increases visceral adiposity and lipids and decreases insulin sensitivity in overweight/obese humans. J Clin Invest. 2009; 119: 1322-34.