Vascular calcification: Mechanisms and clinical ramifications

Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology

Volumn 24, Issue 7, 2004, Pages 1161-1170

  Abedin, Moeen ^a   Tintut, Yin ^a   Demer, Linda L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Atherosclerosis; Bone; Calcification; Inflammation; Vascular

Indexed keywords

BISPHOSPHONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; LIPID; OSTEOCALCIN; OSTEOPONTIN; OSTEOPROTEGERIN; PHOSPHATE; PROTEIN; VITAMIN D; WARFARIN;

ARTERY WALL; ATHEROGENESIS; ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE; BIOMINERALIZATION; BLOOD VESSEL CALCIFICATION; BONE DEVELOPMENT; BONE MINERALIZATION; CELL CULTURE; CELL GROWTH; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DEGENERATION; DIABETES MELLITUS; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; LIPID OXIDATION; MENOPAUSE; NONHUMAN; OSTEOCLAST; OSTEOPOROSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SHORT SURVEY;

ANIMALS; ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; CALCINOSIS; CALCIUM-BINDING PROTEINS; DIABETES MELLITUS; ENDPOINT DETERMINATION; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX PROTEINS; GLYCOPROTEINS; HUMANS; MENOPAUSE; MICE; MICE, KNOCKOUT; MINERALS; OSTEOGENESIS; OSTEOPONTIN; OSTEOPOROSIS; OSTEOPROTEGERIN; PHOSPHATES; RECEPTORS, CYTOPLASMIC AND NUCLEAR; RECEPTORS, TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR; SIALOGLYCOPROTEINS;

EID: 3042856482     PISSN: 10795642     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1161/01.ATV.0000133194.94939.42     Document Type: Short Survey

References (116)

1. Chapman I. Anatomic and clinical significance of calcification of the aortic knob visualized radiographically. Am J Cardiol. 1960;6:281-286.
2. Rumberger JA, Simons DB, Fitzpatrick LA, Sheedy PF, Schwartz RS. Coronary artery calcium area by electron-beam computed tomography and coronary atherosclerotic plaque area. A histopathologic correlative study. Circulation. 1995;92:2157-2162.
3. Virchow R. Cellular pathology: as based upon physiological and pathological histology. (Chance F, translator; an unabridged and unaltered republication of the English translation originally published by J.B. Lippincott and Co, Philadelphia, 1863). New York: Dover Publications; 1971:404-408.
4. Demer LL, Watson KE, Boström K. Mechanism of calcification in atherosclerosis. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 1994;4:45-49.
5. Otto CM, Kuusisto J, Reichenbach DD, Gown AM, O'Brien KD. Characterization of the early lesion of 'degenerative' valvular aortic stenosis. Histological and immunohistochemical studies. Circulation. 1994;90: 844-853.
6. Feldman T, Glagov S, Carroll JD. Restenosis following successful balloon valvuloplasty: bone formation in aortic valve leaflets. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 1993;29:1-7.
7. rd. Bone formation in carotid plaques: a clinicopathological study. Stroke. 2002;33:1214-1219.
8. Mohler ER 3rd, Gannon F, Reynolds C, Zimmerman R, Keane MG, Kaplan FS. Bone formation and inflammation in cardiac valves. Circulation. 2001;103:1522-1528.
9. Bostrom K, Watson KE, Horn S, Wortham C, Herman IM, Demer LL. Bone morphogenetic protein expression in human atherosclerotic lesions. J Clin Invest. 1993;91:1800-1809.
10. Giachelli CM, Bae N, Almeida M, Denhardt DT, Alpers CE, Schwartz SM. Osteopontin is elevated during neointima formation in rat arteries and is a novel component of human atherosclerotic plaques. J Clin Invest. 1993;92:1686-1696.
11. Ikeda T, Shirasawa T, Esaki Y, Yoshiki S, Hirokawa K. Osteopontin mRNA is expressed by smooth muscle-derived foam cells in human atherosclerotic lesions of the aorta. J Clin Invest. 1993;92:2814-2820.
12. Hirota S, Imakita M, Kohri K, Ito A, Morii E, Adachi S, Kim HM, Kitamura Y, Yutani C, Nomura S. Expression of osteopontin messenger RNA by macrophages in atherosclerotic plaques. A possible association with calcification. Am J Pathol. 1993;143:1003-1008.
13. Shanahan CM, Cary NR, Metcalfe JC, Weissberg PL. High expression of genes for calcification-regulating proteins in human atherosclerotic plaques. J Clin Invest. 1994;93:2393-2402.
14. Dhore CR, Cleutjens JP, Lutgens E, Cleutjens KB, Geusens PP, Kitslaar PJ, Tordoir JH, Spronk HM, Vermeer C, Daemen MJ. Differential expression of bone matrix regulatory proteins in human atherosclerotic plaques. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001;21:1998-2003.
15. Tanimura A, McGregor DH, Anderson HC. Matrix vesicles in atherosclerotic calcification. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1983;172:173-177.
16. Giachelli C, Bae N, Lombardi D, Majesky M, Schwartz S. Molecular cloning and characterization of 2B7, a rat mRNA which distinguishes smooth muscle cell phenotypes in vitro and is identical to osteopontin (secreted phosphoprotein 1, 2aR). Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1991; 177:867-873.
17. Shioi A, Nishizawa Y, Jono S, Koyama H, Hosoi M, Morii H. β-glycerophosphate accelerates calcification in cultured bovine vascular smooth muscle cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1995;15: 2003-2009.
18. Steitz SA, Speer MY, Curinga G, Yang HY, Haynes P, Aebersold R, Schinke T, Karsenty G, Giachelli CM. Smooth muscle cell phenotypic transition associated with calcification: upregulation of Cbfa1 and downregulation of smooth muscle lineage markers. Circ Res. 2001;89: 1147-1154.
19. Watson KE, Bostrom K, Ravindranath R, Lam T, Norton B, Demer LL. TGF-β 1 and 25-hydroxycholesterol stimulate osteoblast-like vascular cells to calcify. J Clin Invest. 1994;93:2106-2113.
20. Tintut Y, Alfonso Z, Saini T, Radcliff K, Watson K, Bostrom K, Demer LL. Multilineage potential of cells from the artery wall. Circulation. 2003;108:2505-2510.
21. Towler DA, Bidder M, Latifi T, Coleman T, Semenkovich CF. Diet-induced diabetes activates an osteogenic gene regulatory program in the aortas of low density lipoprotein receptor-deficient mice. J Biol Chem. 1998;273:30427-30434.
22. Cheng SL, Shao JS, Charlton-Kachigian N, Loewy AP, Towler DA. Msx2 promotes osteogenesis and suppresses adipogenic differentiation of multipotent mesenchymal progenitors. J Biol Chem. 2003;278: 45969-45977.
23. Steitz SA, Speer MY, McKee MD, Liaw L, Almeida M, Yang H, Giachelli CM. Osteopontin inhibits mineral deposition and promotes regression of ectopic calcification. Am J Pathol. 2002;161:2035-2046.
24. Baron R, Neff L, Louvard D, Courtoy PJ. Cell-mediated extracellular acidification and bone resorption: evidence for a low pH in resorbing lacunae and localization of a 100-kD lysosomal membrane protein at the osteoclast ruffled border. J Cell Biol. 1985;101:2210-2222.
25. Jeziorska M, McCollum C, Wooley DE. Observations on bone formation and remodeling in advanced atherosclerotic lesions of human carotid arteries. Virchows Arch. 1998;433:559-565.
26. Merkel KD, Erdmann JM, McHugh KP, Abu-Amer Y, Ross FP, Teitelbaum SL. Tumor necrosis factor-α mediates orthopedic implant osteolysis. Am J Pathol. 1999;154:203-210.
27. Gerrity RG, Naito HK. Ultrastructural identification of monocyte-derived foam cells in fatty streak lesions. Artery. 1980;8:208-214.
28. Matsuzaki K, Udagawa N, Takahashi N, Yamaguchi K, Yasuda H, Shima N, Morinaga T, Toyama Y, Yabe Y, Higashio K, Suda T. Osteoclast differentiation factor (ODF) induces osteoclast-like cell formation in human peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1998;246:199-204.
29. Rosenfeld ME, Yla-Herttuala S, Lipton BA, Ord VA, Witztum JL, Steinberg D. Macrophage colony-stimulating factor mRNA and protein in atherosclerotic lesions of rabbits and humans. Am J Pathol. 1992; 140:291-300.
30. Clinton SK, Underwood R, Hayes L, Sherman ML, Kufe DW, Libby P. Macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene expression in vascular cells and in experimental and human atherosclerosis. Am J Pathol. 1992;140: 301-316.
31. Kaden JJ, Bickelhaupt S, Grobholz R, Haase KK, Sarikoc A, Kilic R, Brueckmann M, Lang S, Zahn I, Vahl C, Hagl S, Dempfle CE, Borggrefe M. Receptor activator of nuclear factor kappaB ligand and osteoprotegerin regulate aortic valve calcification. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2004;36:57-66.
32. Price PA, Urist MR, Otawara Y. Matrix Gla protein, a new γ-carboxyglutamic acid-containing protein which is associated with the organic matrix of bone. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1983;117: 765-771.
33. Loeser RF, Wallin R. Cell adhesion to matrix Gla protein and its inhibition by an Arg-Gly-Asp-containing peptide. J Biol Chem. 1992; 267:9459-9462.
34. Otawara Y, Price PA. Developmental appearance of matrix GLA protein during calcification in the rat. J Biol Chem. 1986;261:10828-10832.
35. Farzaneh-Far A, Proudfoot D, Weissberg PL, Shanahan CM. Matrix gla protein is regulated by a mechanism functionally related to the calcium-sensing receptor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2000;277:736-740.
36. Luo G, Ducy P, McKee MD, Pinero GJ, Loyer E, Behringer RR, Karsenty G. Spontaneous calcification of arteries and cartilage in mice lacking matrix GLA protein. Nature. 1997;386:78-81.
37. Bostrom K, Tsao D, Shen S, Wang Y, Demer LL. Matrix GLA protein modulates differentiation induced by bone morphogenetic protein-2 in C3H10T1/2 cells. J Biol Chem. 2001;276:14044-14052.
38. Wallin R, Cain D, Hutson SM, Sane DC, Loeser R. Modulation of the binding of matrix Gla protein (MGP) to bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2). Thromb Haemost. 2000;84:1039-1044.
39. Zebboudj AF, Imura M, Bostrom K. Matrix GLA protein, a regulatory protein for bone morphogenetic protein-2. J Biol Chem. 2002;277: 4388-4394.
40. Zebboudj AF, Shin V, Bostrom K. Matrix GLA protein and BMP-2 regulate osteoinduction in calcifying vascular cells. J Cell Biochem. 2003;90:756-765.
41. Sweatt A, Sane DC, Hutson SM, Wallin. Matrix Gla protein (MGP) and bone morphogenetic protein-2 in aortic calcified lesions of aging rats. J Thromb Haemost. 2003;1:178-185.
42. Jie KS, Bots ML, Vermeer C, Witteman JC, Grobbee DE. Vitamin K intake and osteocalcin levels in women with and without aortic atherosclerosis: a population-based study. Atherosclerosis. 1995;116:117-123.
43. Goodman WG. Vascular calcification in chronic renal failure. Lancet. 2001;358:1115-1116.
44. O'Brien ER, Garvin MR, Stewart DK, Hinohara T, Simpson JB, Schwartz SM, Giachelli CM. Osteopontin is synthesized by macrophage, smooth muscle, and endothelial cells in primary and restenotic human coronary atherosclerotic plaques. Arterioscler Thromb. 1994;14: 1648-1645.
45. Ohmori R, Momiyama Y, Taniguchi H, Takahashi R, Kusuhara M, Nakamura H, Ohsuzu F. Plasma osteopontin levels are associated with the presence and extent of coronary artery disease. Atherosclerosis. 2003;170:333-337.
46. Wada T, McKee MD, Steitz S, Giachelli CM. Calcification of vascular smooth muscle cell cultures: inhibition by osteopontin. Circ Res. 1999; 84:166-178.
47. Goldsmith HL, Labrosse JM, McIntosh FA, Maenpaa PH, Kaartinen MT, McKee MD. Homotypic interactions of soluble and immobilized osteopontin. Ann Biomed Eng. 2002;30:840-850.
48. Miyauchi A, Alvarez J, Greenfield EM, Teti A, Grano M, Colucci S, Zambonin-Zallone A, Ross FP, Teitelbaum SL, Cheresh D, Hruska KA. Recognition of osteopontin and related peptides by an α v β 3 integrin stimulates immediate cell signals in osteoclasts. J Biol Chem. 1991;266: 20369-20374.
49. Asou Y, Rittling SR, Yoshitake H, Tsuji K, Shinomiya K, Nifuji A, Denhardt DT, Noda M. Osteopontin facilitates angiogenesis, accumulation of osteoclasts, and resorption in ectopic bone. Endocrinology. 2001;142:1325-1332.
50. Speer MY, McKee MD, Guldberg RE, Liaw L, Yang HY, Tung E, Karsenty G, Giachelli CM. Inactivation of the osteopontin gene enhances vascular calcification of matrix Gla protein-deficient mice: evidence for osteopontin as an inducible inhibitor of vascular calcification in vivo. J Exp Med. 2002;196:1047-1055.
51. Matsui Y, Rittling SR, Okamoto H, Inobe M, Jia N, Shimizu T, Akino M, Sugawara T, Morimoto J, Kimura C, Kon S, Denhardt D, Kitabatake A, Uede T. Osteopontin deficiency attenuates atherosclerosis in female apolipoprotein e-deficient mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003; 23:1029-1034.
52. Simonet WS, Lacey DL, Dunstan CR, Kelley M, Chang MS, Luthy R, Nguyen HQ, Wooden S, Bennett L, Boone T, Shimamoto G, DeRose M, Elliott R, Colombero A, Tan HL, Trail G, Sullivan J, Davy E, Bucay N, Renshaw-Gegg L, Hughes TM, Hill D, Pattison W, Campbell P, Boyle WJ, et al. Osteoprotegerin: a novel secreted protein involved in the regulation of bone density. Cell. 1997;89:309-319.
53. Boyle WJ, Simonet WS, Lacey DL. Osteoclast differentiation and activation. Nature. 2003;423:337-342.
54. Hofbauer LC, Shui C, Riggs BL, Dunstan CR, Spelsberg TC, O'Brien T, Khosla S. Effects of immunosuppressants on receptor activator of NF-kappaB ligand and osteoprotegerin production by human osteoblastic and coronary artery smooth muscle cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2001;280:334-339.
55. Price PA, June HH, Buckley JR, Williamson MK. Osteoprotegerin inhibits artery calcification induced by warfarin and by vitamin D. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001;21:1610-1616.
56. Bucay N, Sarosi I, Dunstan CR, Morony S, Tarpley J, Capparelli C, Scully S, Tan HL, Xu W, Lacey DL, Boyle WJ, Simonet WS. Osteoprotegerin-deficient mice develop early onset osteoporosis and arterial calcification. Genes Dev. 1998;12:1260-1268.
57. Kaden JJ, Bickelhaupt S, Grobholz R, Haase KK, Sarikoc A, Kilic R, Brueckmann M, Lang S, Zahn I, Vahl C, Hagl S, Dempfle CE, Borggrefe M. Receptor activator of nuclear factor kappaB ligand and osteoprotegerin regulate aortic valve calcification. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 36(1):57-66, 2004 Jan.
58. Pritzker LB, Scatena M, Giachelli CM. The role of osteoprotegerin and TNF-related apoptosis inducing ligand in human microvascular endothelial cell survival. Mol Biol Cell. 2004 [Epub ahead of print]
59. Browner WS, Lui LY, Cummings SR. Associations of serum osteoprotegerin levels with diabetes, stroke, bone density, fractures, and mortality in elderly women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:631-637.
60. Jono S, Ikari Y, Shioi A, Mori K, Miki T, Hara K, Nishizawa Y. Serum osteoprotegerin levels are associated with the presence and severity of coronary artery disease. Circulation. 2002;106:1192-1194.
61. Schoppet M, Sattler AM, Schaefer JR, Herzum M, Maisch B, Hofbauer LC. Increased osteoprotegerin serum levels in men with coronary artery disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:1024-1028.
62. Hofbauer LC, Schoppet M, Schuller P, Viereck V, Christ M. Effects of oral contraceptives on circulating osteoprotegerin and soluble RANK ligand serum levels in healthy young women. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2004;60:214-219.
63. Jono S, McKee MD, Murry CE, Shioi A, Nishizawa Y, Mori K, Morii H, Giachelli CM. Phosphate regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell calcification. Circ Res. 2000;87:E10-E17.
64. Block GA. Control of serum phosphorus: implications for coronary artery calcification and calcific uremic artefiolopathy (calciphylaxis). Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2001;10:741-747.
65. Johnson K, Moffa A, Chen Y, Pritzker K, Goding J, Terkeltaub R. Matrix vesicle plasma cell membrane glycoprotein-1 regulates mineralization by murine osteoblastic MC3T3 cells. J Bone Miner Res. 1999; 14:883-892.
66. Rutsch F, Ruf N, Vaingankar S, Toliat MR, Suk A, Hohne W, Schauer G, Lehmann M, Roscioli T, Schnabel D, Epplen JT, Knisely A, Superti-Furga A, McGill J, Filippone M, Sinaiko AR, Vallance H, Hinrichs B, Smith W, Ferre M, Terkeltaub R, Nurnberg P. Mutations in ENPP1 are associated with 'idiopathic' infantile arterial calcification. Nat Genet. 2003;34:379-381.
67. Gerber HP, Ferrara N. Angiogenesis and bone growth. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2000;10:223-228.
68. Fiore S, Serhan CN. Formation of lipoxins and leukotrienes during receptor-mediated interactions of human platelets and recombinant human granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor-primed neutrophils. J Exp Med. 1990;172:1451-1457.
69. Tintut Y, Patel J, Parhami F, Demer LL. Tumor necrosis factor-α promotes in vitro calcification of vascular cells via the cAMP pathway. Circulation. 2000;102:2636-2642.
70. Parhami F, Morrow AD, Balucan J, Leifinger N, Watson AD, Tintut Y, Berliner JA, Demer LL. Lipid oxidation products have opposite effects on calcifying vascular cell and bone cell differentiation. A possible explanation for the paradox of arterial calcification in osteoporotic patients. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997;17:680-687.
71. Romanov YA, Svintsitskaya VA, Smirnov VN. Searching for alternative sources of postnatal human mesenchymal stem cells: candidate MSC-like cells from umbilical cord. Stem Cells. 2003;21:105-110.
72. Frink RJ, Achor RW, Brown AL Jr., Kincaid OW, Brandenburg RO. Significance of calcification of the coronary arteries. Am J Cardiol. 1970;26:241-247.
73. Wong ND, Vo A, Abrahamson D, Tobis JM, Eisenberg H, Detrano RC. Detection of coronary artery calcium by ultrafast computed tomography and its relation to clinical evidence of coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol. 1994;73:223-227.
74. Yamamoto H, Imazu M, Hattori Y, Tadehara F, Yamakido M, Nakanishi T, Ito K. Predicting angiographic narrowing > or = 50% in diameter in each of the three major arteries by amounts of calcium detected by electron beam computed tomographic scanning in patients with chest pain. Am J Cardiol. 1998;81:778-780.
75. Arad Y, Spadaro LA, Goodman K, Newstein D, Guerci AD. Prediction of coronary events with electron beam computed tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;36:1253-1260.
76. Schmermund A, Erbel R. Unstable coronary plaque and its relation to coronary calcium. Circulation. 2001;104:1682-1687.
77. O'Rourke RA, Brundage BH, Froelicher VF, Greenland P, Grundy SM, Hachamovitch R, Pohost GM, Shaw LJ, Weintraub WS, Winters WL Jr., Forrester JS, Douglas PS, Faxon DP, Fisher JD, Gregoratos G, Hochman JS, Hutter AM Jr., Kaul S, Wolk MJ. Am College of Cardiology/Am Heart Association Expert Consensus document on electron-beam computed tomography for the diagnosis and prognosis of coronary artery disease. Circulation. 2000;102:126-140.
78. Rosenhek R, Binder T, Porenta G, Lang I, Christ G, Schemper M, Maurer G, Baumgartner H. Predictors of outcome in severe, asymptomatic aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:611-617.
79. Wang AY, Wang M, Woo J, Lam CW, Li PK, Lui SF, Sanderson JE. Cardiac valve calcification as an important predictor for all-cause mortality and cardiovascular mortality in long-term peritoneal dialysis patients: a prospective study. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2003;14:159-168.
80. Braun J, Oldendorf M, Moshage W, Heidler R, Zeitler E, Luft FC. Electron beam computed tomography in the evaluation of cardiac calcification in chronic dialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis. 1996;27: 394-401.
81. Detrano RC, Wong ND, Doherty RM, Shavelle RM, Tang W, Ginzton LE, Budoff MJ and Nahara K. Coronary calcium does not accurately predict near term future coronary events in high-risk adults. Circulation. 1999;99:2633-2638.
82. Bocksch WG, Schartl M, Beckmann SH, Dreysse S, Paeprer H. Intravascular ultrasound imaging in patients with acute myocardial infarction: comparison with chronic stable angina pectoris. Coron Artery Dis. 1994;5:727-735.
83. Beckman JA, Ganz J, Creager MA, Ganz P, Kinlay S. Relationship of clinical presentation and calcification of culprit coronary artery stenoses. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001;21:1618-1622.
84. Ge J, Chirillo F, Schwedtmann J, Gorge G, Haude M, Baumgart D, Shah V, von Birgelen C, Sack S, Boudoulas H, Erbel R. Screening of ruptured plaques in patients with coronary artery disease by intravascular ultrasound. Heart. 1999;81:621-627.
85. Cheng GC, Loree HM, Kamm RD, Fishbein MC, Lee R. Distribution of circumferential stress in ruptured and stable atherosclerotic lesions. A structural analysis with histopathological correlation. Circulation. 1993; 87:1179-1187.
86. Lee RT, Grodzinsky AJ, Frank EH, Kamm RD, Schoen FJ. Structure-dependent dynamic mechanical behavior of fibrous caps from human atherosclerotic plaques. Circulation. 1993;83:1764-1770.
87. Richardson PD, Davies MJ, Born GV. Influence of plaque configuration and stress distribution on fissuring of coronary atherosclerotic plaques. Lancet. 1989;2:941-944.
88. Yoon HC, Emerick AM, Hill JA, Gjertson DW, Goldin JG. Calcium begets calcium: progression of coronary artery calcification in asymptomatic subjects. Radiology. 2002;224:236-241.
89. Bielak LF, Sheedy PF 2nd, Peyser PA. Coronary artery calcification measured at electron-beam CT: agreement in dual scan runs and change over time. Radiology. 2001;218:224-229.
90. Fuchs U, Caffier P, Schulz HG, Wieniecki P. Arterial calcification in diabetics. Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histopathol. 1985;407: 431-439.
91. Levin ME, Boisseau VC, Avioli LV. Effects of diabetes mellitus on bone mass in juvenile and adult-onset diabetes. N Engl J Med. 1976; 294:241-245.
92. Lehto S, Niskanen L, Suhonen M, Ronnemaa T, Laakso M. Medial artery calcification. A neglected harbinger of cardiovascular complications in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1996;16:978-983.
93. Yamagishi S, Fujimori H, Yonekura H, Tanaka N, Yamamoto H. Advanced glycation endproducts accelerate calcification in microvascular pericytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1999;258: 353-357.
94. Bidder M, Shao JS, Charlton-Kachigian N, Loewy AP, Semenkovich CF, Towler DA. Osteopontin transcription in aortic vascular smooth muscle cells is controlled by glucose-regulated upstream stimulatory factor and activator protein-1 activities. J Biol Chem. 2002;277: 44485-44496.
95. Sima A, Popov D, Starodub O, Stancu C, Cristea C, Stern D, Simionescu M. Pathobiology of the heart in experimental diabetes: immunolocalization of lipoproteins, immunoglobulin G, and advanced glycation endproducts proteins in diabetic and/or hyperlipidemic hamster. Lab Invest. 1997;77:3-18.
96. Snell-Bergeon JK, Hokanson JE, Jensen L, MacKenzie T, Kinney G, Dabelea D, Eckel RH, Ehrlich J, Garg S, Rewers M. Progression of coronary artery calcification in type 1 diabetes: the importance of glycemic control. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:2923-2928.
97. Ishimura E, Okuno S, Kitatani K, Kim M, Shoji T, Nakatani T, Inaba M, Nishizawa Y. Different risk factors for peripheral vascular calcification between diabetic and non-diabetic haemodialysis patients-importance of glycaemic control. Diabetologia. 2002;45:1446-1448.
98. Wagenknecht LE, Bowden DW, Carr JJ, Langefeld CD, Freedman BI, Rich SS. Familial aggregation of coronary artery calcium in families with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2001;50:861-866.
99. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet. 1998;352:837-853.
100. McLaughlin VV, Hoff JA, Rich S. Relation between hormone replacement therapy in women and coronary artery disease estimated by electron beam tomography. Am Heart J. 1997;134:1115-1119.
101. Balica M, Bostrom K, Shin V, Tillisch K, Demer LL. Calcifying subpopulation of bovine aortic smooth muscle cells is responsive to 17 β-estradiol. Circulation. 1997;95:1954-1960.
102. Hulley S, Grady D, Bush T, Furberg C, Herrington D, Riggs B, Vittinghoff E. Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group. JAMA. 1998;280:605-613.
103. Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, LaCroix AZ, Kooperberg C, Stefanick ML, Jackson RD, Beresford SA, Howard BV, Johnson KC, Kotchen JM, Ockene J; Writing Group for the Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results From the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002; 288:321-333.
104. Christian RC, Harrington S, Edwards WD, Oberg AL, Fitzpatrick LA. Estrogen status correlates with the calcium content of coronary atherosclerotic plaques in women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87: 1062-1067.
105. Shemesh J, Frenkel Y, Leibovitch L, Grossman E, Pines A, Motro M. Does hormone replacement therapy inhibit coronary artery calcification? Obstet Gynecol. 1997;89:989-992.
106. Akhrass F, Evans AT, Wang Y, Rich S, Kannan CR, Fogelfeld L, Mazzone T. Hormone replacement therapy is associated with less coronary atherosclerosis in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:5611-5614.
107. Cummings SR, Melton LJ. Epidemiology and outcomes of osteoporotic fractures. Lancet. 2002;359:1761-1767.
108. Hak AE, Pols HA, van Hemert AM, Hofman A, Witteman JC. Progression of aortic calcification is associated with metacarpal bone loss during menopause: a population-based longitudinal study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000;20:1926-1931.
109. Ylitalo R, Monkkonen J, Urtti A, Ylitalo P. Accumulation of bisphosphonates in the aorta and some other tissues of healthy and atherosclerotic rabbits. J Lab Clin Med. 1996;127:200-206.
110. Jarvis MF, Burns CJ, Pauls HW, Assal A, Kim JS, Cheney DL, Youssefyeh RD. Characterization of the bisphosphonate recognition site on hydroxyapatite using radioligand binding techniques with [14C] citric acid. Calcif Tissue Int. 1993;52:372-377.
111. Kramsch DM, Chan CT. The effect of agents interfering with soft tissue calcification and cell proliferation on calcific fibrous-fatty plaques in rabbits. Circ Res. 1978;42:562-571.
112. Hollander W, Paddock J, Nagraj S, Colombo M, Kirkpatrick B. Effects of anticalcifying and antifibrobrotic drugs on pre-established atherosclerosis in the rabbit. Atherosclerosis. 1979;33:111-123.
113. Su JZ, Fukuda N, Kishioka H, Hu WY, Kanmatsuse K. Etidronate influences growth and phenotype of rat vascular smooth muscle cells. Pharmacol Res. 2002;46:7-13.
114. Danenberg HD, Fishbein I, Gao J, Monkkonen J, Reich R, Gati I, Moerman E, Golomb G. Macrophage depletion by clodronate-containing liposomes reduces neointimal formation after balloon injury in rats and rabbits. Circulation. 2002;106:599-605.
115. Price PA, Faus SA, Williamson MK. Bisphosphonates alendronate and ibandronate inhibit artery calcification at doses comparable to those that inhibit bone resorption. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001;21: 817-824.
116. Hill JA, Goldin JG, Gjertson D, Emerick AM, Greaser LD, Yoon HC, Khorrami S, Aziz D, Adams JS. Progression of coronary artery calcification in patients taking alendronate for osteoporosis. Acad Radiol. 2002;9:1148-1152.