Vector-virus interactions and transmission dynamics of West Nile virus

Viruses

Volumn 5, Issue 12, 2013, Pages 3021-3047

  Ciota, Alexander T ^a   Kramer, Laura D ^a,b  

^a WADSWORTH CENTER   (United States)

^b STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

Author keywords

Culex; Host competence; Mosquito biology; Vectorial capacity; Virus evolution; West Nile virus

Indexed keywords

RNA; VIRUS VECTOR;

BIRD; BOTTLENECK POPULATION; CULEX; HUMAN; IMMUNE STATUS; IMMUNOCOMPETENCE; INCUBATION TIME; LIFE HISTORY TRAIT; MICROBIAL DIVERSITY; MICROBIAL IMMUNITY; MICROBIAL METABOLISM; MICROBIAL POPULATION DYNAMICS; MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; ORGANISMS BY GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION; POPULATION DENSITY; REVIEW; VIRAL GENETICS; VIRUS CELL INTERACTION; VIRUS INFECTION; VIRUS MUTATION; VIRUS REPLICATION; VIRUS SURVIVAL; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; WEST NILE FLAVIVIRUS;

ANIMALS; CULICIDAE; DISEASE TRANSMISSION, INFECTIOUS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; HOST-PATHOGEN INTERACTIONS; HUMANS; INSECT VECTORS; VERTEBRATES; WEST NILE FEVER; WEST NILE VIRUS;

EID: 84890320442     PISSN: 19994915     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/v5123021     Document Type: Review

References (195)

1. Ebel, G.D.; Dupuis, A.P., II; Ngo, K.A.; Nicholas, D.C.; Kauffman, E.B.; Jones, S.A.; Young, D.M.; Maffei, J.G.; Shi, P.-Y.; Bernard, K.A.; et al. Partial genetic characterization of West Nile virus strains, New York State. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2001, 7, 650-653.
2. Lanciotti, R.S.; Roehrig, J.T.; Deubel, V.; Smith, J.; Parker, M.; Steele, K.; Crise, B.; Volpe, K.E.; Crabtree, M.B.; Scherret, J.H.; et al. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science 1999, 286, 2333-2337.
3. Bosch, I.; Herrera, F.; Navarro, J.C.; Lentino, M.; Dupuis, A.P.; Maffei, J.; Jones, M.J.; Fernandez, E.; Perez, N.; Perez-Eman, J.; et al. West Nile viurs, Venezuela. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2007, 4, 651-653.
4. Hayes, E.B.; Sejvar, J.J.; Zaki, S.R.; Lanciotti, R.S.; Bode, A.V.; Campbell, G.L. Virology, pathology, and clinical manifestations of West Nile virus disease. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2005, 11, 1174-1179.
5. Komar, N.; Clark, G.G. West Nile virus activity in Latin America and the Caribbean. Rev. Panam. Salud Publica 2006, 19, 112-117.
6. Morales, M.A.; Barrandeguy, M.; Fabbri, C.; Garcia, J.B.; Vissani, A.; Trono, K.; Gutierrez, G.; Pigretti, S.; Menchaca, H.; Garrido, N.; et al. West Nile virus isolation from equines in Argentina, 2006. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2006, 12, 1559-1561.
7. Chamberlain, R.W.; Sudia, W.D. Mechanism of transmission of viruses by mosquitoes. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 1961, 6, 371-390.
8. Hardy, J.L.; Houk, E.J.; Kramer, L.D.; Reeves, W.C. Intrinsic factors affecting vector competence of mosquitoes for arboviruses. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 1983, 28, 229-262.
9. Macdonald, G. Epidemiologic models in studies of vector-borne diseases. Public Health Rep. 1961, 76, 753-764.
10. Kramer, L.D.; Ebel, G.D. Dynamics of flavivirus infection in mosquitoes. Adv. Virus Res. 2003, 60, 187-232.
11. Reiner, R.C., Jr.; Perkins, T.A.; Barker, C.M.; Niu, T.; Chaves, L.F.; Ellis, A.M.; George, D.B.; Le, M.A.; Pulliam, J.R.; Bisanzio, D.; et al. A systematic review of mathematical models of mosquito-borne pathogen transmission: 1970-2010. J. R. Soc. Interface 2013, 10, doi:10.1098/ rsif.2012.0921.
12. Kilpatrick, A.M.; Kramer, L.D.; Campbell, S.R.; Alleyne, E.O.; Dobson, A.P.; Daszak, P. West Nile virus risk assessment and the bridge vector paradigm. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2005, 11, 425-429.
13. Ebel, G.D.; Rochlin, I.; Longacker, J.; Kramer, L.D. Culex restuans (Diptera: Culicidae) relative abundance and vector competence for West Nile virus. J. Med. Entomol. 2005, 42, 838-843.
14. Geery, P.R.; Holub, R.E. Seasonal abundance and control of Culex spp. in catch basins in Illinois. J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 1989, 5, 537-540.
15. Savage, H.M.; Aggarwal, D.; Apperson, C.S.; Katholi, C.R.; Gordon, E.; Hassan, H.K.; Anderson, M.; Charnetzky, D.; McMillen, L.; Unnasch, E.A.; et al. Host choice and West Nile virus infection rates in blood-fed mosquitoes, including members of the Culex pipiens complex, from Memphis and Shelby County, Tennessee, 2002-2003. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2007, 7, 365-386.
16. Andreadis, T.G.; Anderson, J.F.; Vossbrinck, C.R. Mosquito surveillance for West Nile virus in Connecticut, 2000: Isolation from Culex pipiens, Cx. restuans, Cx. salinarius, and Culiseta melanura. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2001, 7, 670-674.
17. Fonseca, D.M.; Okada, K.; Kramer, L.D. Microsatellite loci for the white-dotted mosquito (Culex restuans), a principal vector of West Nile virus in North America. Mol. Ecol. Resour. 2009, 9, 958-960.
18. Collins, F.H.; Paskewitz, S.M. A review of the use of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) to differentiate among cryptic Anopheles species. Insect Mol. Biol. 1996, 5, 1-9.
19. Harbach, R.E.; Dahl, C.; White, G.B. Culex (Culex) pipiens Linnaeus (Diptera: Culicidae): Concepts, type designations, and description. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 1985, 87, 1-24.
20. Fonseca, D.M.; Smith, J.L.; Kim, H.C.; Mogi, M. Population genetics of the mosquito Culex pipiens pallens reveals sex-linked asymmetric introgression by Culex quinquefasciatus. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2009, 9, 1197-1203.
21. Fonseca, D.M.; Keyghobadi, N.; Malcolm, C.A.; Mehmet, C.; Schaffner, F.; Mogi, M.; Fleischer, R.C.; Wilkerson, R.C. Emerging vectors in the Culex pipiens complex. Science 2004, 303, 1535-1538.
22. Farajollahi, A.; Fonseca, D.M.; Kramer, L.D.; Marm, K.A. "Bird biting" mosquitoes and human disease: A review of the role of Culex pipiens complex mosquitoes in epidemiology. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2011, 11, 1577-1585.
23. Andreadis, T.G. The contribution of Culex pipiens complex mosquitoes to transmission and persistence of West Nile virus in North America. J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 2012, 28, 137-151.
24. Kramer, L.D.; Styer, L.M.; Ebel, G.D. A global perspective on the epidemiology of West Nile virus. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 2007, 53, 61-81.
25. Huang, S.; Molaei, G.; Andreadis, T.G. Reexamination of Culex pipiens hybridization zone in the Eastern United States by ribosomal DNA-based single nucleotide polymorphism markers. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2011, 85, 434-441.
26. Kothera, L.; Zimmerman, E.M.; Richards, C.M.; Savage, H.M. Microsatellite characterization of subspecies and their hybrids in Culex pipiens complex (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes along a north-south transect in the central United States. J. Med. Entomol. 2009, 46, 236-248.
27. Sanogo, Y.O.; Kim, C.H.; Lampman, R.; Halvorsen, J.G.; Gad, A.M.; Novak, R.J. Identification of male specimens of the Culex pipiens complex (Diptera: Culicidae) in the hybrid zone using morphology and molecular techniques. J. Med. Entomol. 2008, 45, 203-209.
28. Ciota, A.T.; Chin, P.A.; Kramer, L.D. The effect of hybridization of Culex pipiens complex mosquitoes on transmission of West Nile virus. Parasites Vectors 2013, 6, doi:10.1186/1756-3305-6-305.
29. Brown, H.E.; Childs, J.E.; Diuk-Wasser, M.A.; Fish, D. Ecological factors associated with West Nile virus transmission, northeastern United States. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14, 1539-1545.
30. Kilpatrick, A.M. Globalization, land use, and the invasion of West Nile virus. Science 2011, 334, 323-327.
31. Kent, R.; Harrington, L.; Norris, D. Genetic differences between Culex pipiens f. molestus and Culex pipiens pipiens (Diptera: Culicidea) in New York. J. Med. Entomol. 2007, 44, 50-59.
32. Harbach, R.E. Culex pipiens: Species versus species complex taxonomic history and perspective. J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 2012, 28, 10-23.
33. Bolling, B.G.; Moore, C.G.; Anderson, S.L.; Blair, C.D.; Beaty, B.J. Entomological studies along the Colorado Front Range during a period of intense West Nile virus activity. J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 2007, 23, 37-46.
34. Reisen, W.K.; Reeves, W.C. Bionomics and Ecology of Culex tarsalis and Other Potential Mosquito Vector Species. In Epidemiology and Control of Mosquito-borne Arboviruses in California, 1943-1987; Reeves, W.C., Ed.; California Mosquito and Vector Control Association, Inc.: Sacramento, C.A., USA 1990; pp. 254-329.
35. Goldberg, T.L.; Anderson, T.K.; Hamer, G.L. West Nile virus may have hitched a ride across the Western United States on Culex tarsalis mosquitoes. Mol. Ecol. 2010, 19, 1518-1519.
36. Bolling, B.G.; Barker, C.M.; Moore, C.G.; Pape, W.J.; Eisen, L. Seasonal patterns for entomological measures of risk for exposure to Culex vectors and West Nile virus in relation to human disease cases in northeastern Colorado. J. Med. Entomol. 2009, 46, 1519-1531.
37. Bowden, S.E.; Magori, K.; Drake, J.M. Regional differences in the association between land cover and West Nile virus disease incidence in humans in the United States. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2011, 84, 234-238.
38. Venkatesan, M.; Rasgon, J.L. Population genetic data suggest a role for mosquito-mediated dispersal of West Nile virus across the western United States. Mol. Ecol. 2010, 19, 1573-1584.
39. Venkatesan, M.; Westbrook, C.J.; Hauer, M.C.; Rasgon, J.L. Evidence for a population expansion in the West Nile virus vector Culex tarsalis. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2007, 24, 1208-1218.
40. Kramer, L.D.; Hardy, J.L.; Presser, S.B.; Houk, E.J. Dissemination barriers for western equine encephalomyelitis virus in Culex tarsalis infected after ingestion of low viral doses. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1981, 30, 190-197.
41. Grimstad, P.R.; Paulson, S.L.; Craig, G.B., Jr. Vector competence of Aedes hendersoni (Diptera: Culicidae) for La Crosse virus and evidence of a salivary-gland escape barrier. J. Med. Entomol. 1985, 22, 447-453.
42. Miller, B.R.; Monath, T.P.; Tabachnick, W.J.; Ezike, V.I. Epidemic yellow fever caused by an incompetent mosquito vector. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 1989, 40, 396-399.
43. Garrett-Jones, C. Prognosis for interruption of malaria transmission through assessment of the mosquito's vectorial capacity. Nature 1964, 204, 1173-1175.
44. Macdonald, G. The Epidemiology and Control of Malaria; Oxford Univ. Press: London, UK, 1957.
45. Turell, M.J.; Dohm, D.J.; Sardelis, M.R.; Oguinn, M.L.; Andreadis, T.G.; Blow, J.A. An update on the potential of north American mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) to transmit West Nile Virus. J. Med. Entomol. 2005, 42, 57-62.
46. Goddard, L.B.; Roth, A.E.; Reisen, W.K.; Scott, T.W. Vector competence of California mosquitoes for West Nile virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2002, 8, 1385-1391.
47. Turell, M.J.; O'Guinn, M.L.; Dohm, D.J.; Jones, J.W. Vector competence of North American mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) for West Nile virus. J. Med. Entomol. 2001, 38, 130-134.
48. Turell, M.J.; O'Guinn, M.; Oliver, J. Potential for New York mosquitoes to transmit West Nile virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2000, 62, 413-414.
49. Sardelis, M.R.; Turell, M.J.; Dohm, D.J.; O'Guinn, M.L. Vector competence of selected North American Culex and Coquillettidia mosquitoes for West Nile virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2001, 7, 1018-1022.
50. Moudy, R.M.; Meola, M.A.; Morin, L.L.; Ebel, G.D.; Kramer, L.D. A newly emergent genotype of west nile virus is transmitted earlier and more efficiently by culex mosquitoes. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007, 77, 365-370.
51. Kilpatrick, A.M.; Meola, M.A.; Moudy, R.M.; Kramer, L.D. Temperature, viral genetics, and the transmission of West Nile virus by Culex pipiens mosquitoes. PLoS Pathog. 2008, 4, e1000092.
52. Ebel, G.D.; Carricaburu, J.; Young, D.; Bernard, K.A.; Kramer, L.D. Genetic and phenotypic variation of West Nile virus in New York, 2000-2003. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2004, 71, 493-500.
53. Dohm, D.J.; O'Guinn, M.L.; Turell, M.J. Effect of environmental temperature on the ability of Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) to transmit West Nile virus. J. Med. Entomol. 2002, 39, 221-225.
54. Reisen, W.K.; Fang, Y.; Martinez, V.M. Effects of temperature on the transmission of west nile virus by Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Entomol. 2006, 43, 309-317.
55. Reisen, W.K.; Barker, C.M.; Fang, Y.; Martinez, V.M. Does variation in Culex (Diptera: Culicidae) vector competence enable outbreaks of West Nile virus in California? J. Med. Entomol. 2008, 45, 1126-1138.
56. Sardelis, M.R.; Turell, M.J.; O'Guinn, M.L.; Andre, R.G.; Roberts, D.R. Vector competence of three North American strains of Aedes albopictus for West Nile virus. J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 2002, 18, 284-289.
57. Vaidyanathan, R.; Scott, T.W. Geographic variation in vector competence for West Nile virus in the Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) complex in California. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2007, 7, 193-198.
58. Hayes, C.G.; Baker, R.H.; Baqar, S.; Ahmed, T. Genetic variation for West Nile virus susceptibility in Culex tritaeniorhynchus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1984, 33, 715-724.
59. Vaidyanathan, V.; Scott, T.W. Seasonal variation in susceptibility to West Nile virus infection in Culex pipiens pipiens (L.) (Diptera: Culicidea) from San Joaquin County, California. J. Vector Ecol. 2006, 31, 423-425.
60. Kilpatrick, A.M.; Fonseca, D.M.; Ebel, G.D.; Reddy, M.R.; Kramer, L.D. Spatial and temporal variation in vector competence of Culex pipiens and Cx. restuans mosquitoes for West Nile virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2010, 83, 607-613.
61. Delatte, H.; Gimonneau, G.; Triboire, A.; Fontenille, D. Influence of temperature on immature development, survival, longevity, fecundity, and gonotrophic cycles of Aedes albopictus, vector of chikungunya and dengue in the Indian Ocean. J. Med. Entomol. 2009, 46, 33-41.
62. Rueda, L.M.; Patel, K.J.; Axtell, R.C.; Stinner, R.E. Temperature-dependent development and survival rates of Culex quinquefasciatus and Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Entomol. 1990, 27, 892-898.
63. Dye, C. The analysis of parasite transmission by bloodsucking insects. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 1992, 37, 1-19.
64. Su, T.; Mulla, M.S. Effects of temperature on development, mortality, mating and blood feeding behavior of Culiseta incidens (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Vector Ecol. 2001, 26, 83-92.
65. Kilpatrick, A.M.; Randolph, S.E. Drivers, dynamics, and control of emerging vector-borne zoonotic diseases. Lancet 2012, 380, 1946-1955.
66. Ciota, A.T.; Matacchiero, A.C.; Kilpatrick, A.M.; Kramer, L.D. The effect of temperature on life history traits of Culex mosquitoes. J. Med. Entomol., in press.
67. Reisen, W.K.; Thiemann, T.; Barker, C.M.; Lu, H.; Carroll, B.; Fang, Y.; Lothrop, H.D. Effects of warm winter temperature on the abundance and gonotrophic activity of Culex (Diptera: Culicidae) in California. J. Med. Entomol. 2010, 47, 230-237.
68. Ciota, A.T.; Drummond, C.L.; Drobnack, J.; Ruby, M.A.; Kramer, L.D.; Ebel, G.D. Emergence of Culex pipiens from overwintering hibernacula. J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 2011, 27, 21-29.
69. Dodson, B.L.; Kramer, L.D.; Rasgon, J.L. Larval nutritional stress does not affect vector competence for West Nile virus (WNV) in Culex tarsalis. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2011, 11, 1493-1497.
70. Jennings, C.D.; Kay, B.H. Dissemination barriers to Ross River virus in Aedes vigilax and the effects of larval nutrition on their expression. Med. Vet. Entomol. 1999, 13, 431-438.
71. Grimstad, P.R.; Walker, E.D. Aedes triseriatus (Diptera: Culicidae) and La Crosse virus. IV. Nutritional deprivation of larvae affects the adult barriers to infection and transmission. J. Med. Entomol. 1991, 28, 378-386.
72. Vaidyanathan, R.; Fleisher, A.E.; Minnick, S.L.; Simmons, K.A.; Scott, T.W. Nutritional stress affects mosquito survival and vector competence for West Nile virus. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2008, 8, 727-732.
73. Shaman, J.; Day, J.F.; Stieglitz, M. Drought-induced amplification and epidemic transmission of West Nile virus in southern Florida. J. Med. Entomol. 2005, 42, 134-141.
74. Epstein, P.R. West Nile virus and the climate. J. Urban Health 2001, 78, 367-371.
75. Johnson, B.J.; Sukhdeo, M.V. Drought-induced amplification of local and regional West Nile virus infection rates in New Jersey. J. Med. Entomol. 2013, 50, 195-204.
76. Crowder, D.W.; Dykstra, E.A.; Brauner, J.M.; Duffy, A.; Reed, C.; Martin, E.; Peterson, W.; Carriere, Y.; Dutilleul, P.; Owen, J.P. West nile virus prevalence across landscapes is mediated by local effects of agriculture on vector and host communities. PLoS One 2013, 8, e55006.
77. Kilpatrick, A.M.; Daszak, P.; Jones, M.J.; Marra, P.P.; Kramer, L.D. Host heterogeneity dominates West Nile virus transmission. Proc. Biol. Sci. 2006, 273, 2327-2333.
78. Kent, R.; Juliusson, L.; Weissmann, M.; Evans, S.; Komar, N. Seasonal blood-feeding behavior of Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) in Weld County, Colorado, 2007. J. Med. Entomol. 2009, 46, 380-390.
79. Thiemann, T.C.; Lemenager, D.A.; Kluh, S.; Carroll, B.D.; Lothrop, H.D.; Reisen, W.K. Spatial variation in host feeding patterns of Culex tarsalis and the Culex pipiens complex (Diptera: Culicidae) in California. J. Med. Entomol. 2012, 49, 903-916.
80. Reisen, W.K.; Hardy, J.L.; Reeves, W.C.; Presser, S.B.; Milby, M.M.; Meyer, R.P. Persistence of mosquito-borne viruses in Kern County, California, 1983-1988. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1990, 43, 419-437.
81. Hamer, G.L.; Kitron, U.D.; Goldberg, T.L.; Brawn, J.D.; Loss, S.R.; Ruiz, M.O.; Hayes, D.B.; Walker, E.D. Host selection by Culex pipiens mosquitoes and West Nile virus amplification. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 80, 268-278.
82. Kilpatrick, A.M.; Kramer, L.D.; Jones, M.J.; Marra, P.P.; Daszak, P. West Nile virus epidemics in North America are driven by shifts in mosquito feeding behavior. PLoS Biol. 2006, 4, e82.
83. Thiemann, T.C.; Wheeler, S.S.; Barker, C.M.; Reisen, W.K. Mosquito host selection varies seasonally with host availability and mosquito density. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2011, 5, e1452.
84. Huang, S.; Hamer, G.L.; Molaei, G.; Walker, E.D.; Goldberg, T.L.; Kitron, U.D.; Andreadis, T.G. Genetic variation associated with mammalian feeding in Culex pipiens from a West Nile virus epidemic region in Chicago, Illinois. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2009, 9, 637-642.
85. Schwartz, A.; Koella, J.C. Trade-offs, conflicts of interest and manipulation in Plasmodium-mosquito interactions. Trends Parasitol. 2001, 17, 189-194.
86. Jackson, B.T.; Brewster, C.C.; Paulson, S.L. La Crosse virus infection alters blood feeding behavior in Aedes triseriatus and Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Entomol. 2012, 49, 1424-1429.
87. Styer, L.M.; Meola, M.A.; Kramer, L.D. West Nile virus infection decreases fecundity of Culex tarsalis females. J. Med. Entomol. 2007, 44, 1074-1085.
88. Ciota, A.T.; Styer, L.M.; Meola, M.A.; Kramer, L.D. The costs of infection and resistance as determinants of West Nile virus susceptibility in Culex mosquitoes. BMC Ecol. 2011, 11, doi:10.1186/1472-6785-11-23.
89. Ciota, A.T.; Ehrbar, D.J.; Matacchiero, A.C.; van Slyke, G.A.; Kramer, L.D. The evolution of virulence of West Nile virus in a mosquito vector: Implications for arbovirus adaptation and evolution. BMC Evol. Biol. 2013, 13, doi:10.1186/1471-2148-13-71.
90. Maciel-de-Freitas, R.; Koella, J.C.; Lourenco-de-Oliveira, R. Lower survival rate, longevity and fecundity of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) females orally challenged with dengue virus serotype 2. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2011, 105, 452-458.
91. Mahmood, F.; Reisen, W.K.; Chiles, R.E.; Fang, Y. Western equine encephalomyelitis virus infection affects the life table characteristics of Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Entomol. 2004, 41, 982-986.
92. Moncayo, A.C.; Edman, J.D.; Turell, M.J. Effect of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus on the survival of Aedes albopictus, Anopheles quadrimaculatus, and Coquillettidia perturbans (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Entomol. 2000, 37, 701-706.
93. Scott, T.W.; Lorenz, L.H. Reduction of Culiseta melanura fitness by eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1998, 59, 341-346.
94. Girard, Y.A.; Popov, V.; Wen, J.; Han, V.; Higgs, S. Ultrastructural study of West Nile virus pathogenesis in Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Entomol. 2005, 42, 429-444.
95. Vaidyanathan, R.; Scott, T.W. Apoptosis in mosquito midgut epithelia associated with West Nile virus infection. Apoptosis 2006, 11, 1643-1651.
96. Fragkoudis, R.; Attarzadeh-Yazdi, G.; Nash, A.A.; Fazakerley, J.K.; Kohl, A. Advances in dissecting mosquito innate immune responses to arbovirus infection. J. Gen. Virol. 2009, 90, 2061-2072.
97. Blair, C.D. Mosquito RNAi is the major innate immune pathway controlling arbovirus infection and transmission. Future Microbiol. 2011, 6, 265-277.
98. Wang, X.H.; Aliyari, R.; Li, W.X.; Li, H.W.; Kim, K.; Carthew, R.; Atkinson, P.; Ding, S.W. RNA interference directs innate immunity against viruses in adult Drosophila. Science 2006, 312, 452-454.
99. Chotkowski, H.L.; Ciota, A.T.; Jia, Y.; Puig-Basagoiti, F.; Kramer, L.D.; Shi, P.Y.; Glaser, R.L. West Nile virus infection of Drosophila melanogaster induces a protective RNAi response. Virology 2008, 377, 197-206.
100. Arjona, A.; Wang, P.; Montgomery, R.R.; Fikrig, E. Innate immune control of West Nile virus infection. Cell. Microbiol. 2011, 13, 1648-1658.
101. Paradkar, P.N.; Trinidad, L.; Voysey, R.; Duchemin, J.B.; Walker, P.J. Secreted Vago restricts West Nile virus infection in Culex mosquito cells by activating the Jak-STAT pathway. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 18915-18920.
102. Prasad, A.N.; Brackney, D.E.; Ebel, G.D. The role of innate immunity in conditioning mosquito susceptibility to West Nile virus. Viruses, in press.
103. Cook, S.; Bennett, S.N.; Holmes, E.C.; Chesse, R.; Moureau, G.; Lamballeria, X. Isolation of a new strain of the flavivirus cell fusing agent virus in a natural mosquito population from Puerto Rico. J. Gen. Virol. 2006, 87, 735-748.
104. Crabtree, M.B.; Sang, R.C.; Stollar, V.; Dunster, L.M.; Miller, B.R. Genetic and phenotypic characterization of the newly described insect flavivirus, Kamiti River virus. Arch. Virol. 2003, 148, 1095-1118.
105. Hoshino, K.; Isawa, H.; Tsuda, Y.; Yano, K.; Sasaki, T.; Yuda, M.; Takasaki, T.; Kobayashi, M.; Sawabe, K. Genetic characterization of a new insect flavivirus isolated from Culex pipiens mosquito in Japan. Virology 2007, 359, 405-414.
106. Huhtamo, E.; Putkuri, N.; Kurkela, S.; Manni, T.; Vaheri, A.; Vapalahti, O.; Uzcategui, N.Y. Characterization of a novel flavivirus from mosquitoes in northern europe that is related to mosquito-borne flaviviruses of the tropics. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 9532-9540.
107. Bolling, B.G.; Eisen, L.; Moore, C.G.; Blair, C.D. Insect-specific flaviviruses from Culex mosquitoes in Colorado, with evidence of vertical transmission. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2011, 85, 169-177.
108. Hobson-Peters, J.; Yam, A.W.; Lu, J.W.; Setoh, Y.X.; May, F.J.; Kurucz, N.; Walsh, S.; Prow, N.A.; Davis, S.S.; Weir, R.; et al. A new insect-specific flavivirus from northern Australia suppresses replication of West Nile virus and Murray Valley encephalitis virus in co-infected mosquito cells. PLoS One 2013, 8, e56534.
109. Calzolari, M.; Bonilauri, P.; Bellini, R.; Albieri, A.; Defilippo, F.; Maioli, G.; Galletti, G.; Gelati, A.; Barbieri, I.; Tamba, M.; et al. Evidence of simultaneous circulation of West Nile and Usutu viruses in mosquitoes sampled in Emilia-Romagna region (Italy) in 2009. PLoS One 2010, 5, e14324.
110. Newman, C.M.; Cerutti, F.; Anderson, T.K.; Hamer, G.L.; Walker, E.D.; Kitron, U.D.; Ruiz, M.O.; Brawn, J.D.; Goldberg, T.L. Culex flavivirus and West Nile virus mosquito coinfection and positive ecological association in Chicago, United States. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2011, 11, 1099-1105.
111. Bolling, B.G.; Olea-Popelka, F.J.; Eisen, L.; Moore, C.G.; Blair, C.D. Transmission dynamics of an insect-specific flavivirus in a naturally infected Culex pipiens laboratory colony and effects of co-infection on vector competence for West Nile virus. Virology 2012, 427, 90-97.
112. Kent, R.J.; Crabtree, M.B.; Miller, B.R. Transmission of West Nile virus by Culex quinquefasciatus say infected with Culex Flavivirus Izabal. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2010, 4, e671.
113. Zou, G.; Zhang, B.; Lim, P.Y.; Yuan, Z.; Bernard, K.A.; Shi, P.Y. Exclusion of West Nile virus superinfection through RNA replication. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 11765-11776.
114. Weiss, B.; Aksoy, S. Microbiome influences on insect host vector competence. Trends Parasitol. 2011, 27, 514-522.
115. Hoffmann, A.A.; Montgomery, B.L.; Popovici, J.; Iturbe-Ormaetxe, I.; Johnson, P.H.; Muzzi, F.; Greenfield, M.; Durkan, M.; Leong, Y.S.; Dong, Y.; et al. Successful establishment of Wolbachia in Aedes populations to suppress dengue transmission. Nature 2011, 476, 454-457.
116. Pan, X.; Zhou, G.; Wu, J.; Bian, G.; Lu, P.; Raikhel, A.S.; Xi, Z. Wolbachia induces reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent activation of the Toll pathway to control dengue virus in the mosquito Aedes aegypti. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, E23-E31.
117. Glaser, R.L.; Meola, M.A. The native Wolbachia endosymbionts of Drosophila melanogaster and Culex quinquefasciatus increase host resistance to West Nile virus infection. PLoS One 2010, 5, e11977.
118. Hussain, M.; Lu, G.; Torres, S.; Edmonds, J.H.; Kay, B.H.; Khromykh, A.A.; Asgari, S. Effect of wolbachia on replication of west nile virus in a mosquito cell line and adult mosquitoes. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 851-858.
119. Bian, G.; Zhou, G.; Lu, P.; Xi, Z. Replacing a native Wolbachia with a novel strain results in an increase in endosymbiont load and resistance to dengue virus in a mosquito vector. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2013, 7, e2250.
120. Pidiyar, V.J.; Jangid, K.; Patole, M.S.; Shouche, Y.S. Studies on cultured and uncultured microbiota of wild culex quinquefasciatus mosquito midgut based on 16s ribosomal RNA gene analysis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2004, 70, 597-603.
121. Ramirez, J.L.; Souza-Neto, J.; Torres, C.R.; Rovira, J.; Ortiz, A.; Pascale, J.M.; Dimopoulos, G. Reciprocal tripartite interactions between the Aedes aegypti midgut microbiota, innate immune system and dengue virus influences vector competence. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2012, 6, e1561.
122. Ricci, I.; Damiani, C.; Capone, A.; DeFreece, C.; Rossi, P.; Favia, G. Mosquito/microbiota interactions: From complex relationships to biotechnological perspectives. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2012, 15, 278-284.
123. Ignatova, E.A.; Nagornaia, S.S.; Povazhnaia, T.N.; Ianishevskaia, G.S. The yeast flora of blood-sucking mosquitoes. Mikrobiol. Z. 1996, 58, 12-15.
124. Ricci, I.; Mosca, M.; Valzano, M.; Damiani, C.; Scuppa, P.; Rossi, P.; Crotti, E.; Cappelli, A.; Ulissi, U.; Capone, A.; et al. Different mosquito species host Wickerhamomyces anomalus (Pichia anomala): Perspectives on vector-borne diseases symbiotic control. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 2011, 99, 43-50.
125. Garza-Hernandez, J.A.; Rodriguez-Perez, M.A.; Salazar, M.I.; Russell, T.L.; Adeleke, M.A.; de Luna-Santillana, E.J.; Reyes-Villanueva, F. Vectorial capacity of Aedes aegypti for dengue virus type 2 is reduced with co-infection of Metarhizium anisopliae. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2013, 7, e2013.
126. Komar, N.; Dohm, D.J.; Turell, M.J.; Spielman, A. Eastern equine encephalitis virus in birds: Relative competence of European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1999, 60, 387-391.
127. Komar, N.; Langevin, S.; Hinten, S.; Nemeth, N.; Edwards, E.; Hettler, D.; Davis, B.; Bowen, R.; Bunning, M. Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2003, 9, 311-322.
128. Dusek, R.J.; McLean, R.G.; Kramer, L.D.; Ubico, S.R.; Dupuis, A.P., II; Ebel, G.D.; Guptill, S.C. Prevalence of West Nile virus in migratory birds during spring and fall migration. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 81, 1151-1158.
129. Kramer, L.D.; Bernard, K.A. West Nile virus in the western hemisphere. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2001, 14, 519-525.
130. Bernard, K.A.; Kramer, L.D. West Nile virus activity in the United States, 2001. Viral Immunol. 2001, 14, 319-338.
131. Ladeau, S.L.; Kilpatrick, A.M.; Marra, P.P. West Nile virus emergence and large-scale declines of North American bird populations. Nature 2007, 447, 710-713.
132. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Species of dead birds in which West Nile virus has been detected, United States, 1999-2012. Available online: http://www.cdc.gov/westnile/resources/ pdfs/Bird%20Species%201999-2012.pdf (accessed 1 December 2013).
133. Reed, L.M.; Johansson, M.A.; Panella, N.; McLean, R.; Creekmore, T.; Puelle, R.; Komar, N. Declining mortality in American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) following natural West Nile virus infection. Avian Dis. 2009, 53, 458-461.
134. Komar, N.; Panella, N.A.; Burns, J.E.; Dusza, S.W.; Mascarenhas, T.M.; Talbot, T.O. Serologic evidence for West Nile virus infection in birds in the New York City vicinity during an outbreak in 1999. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2001, 7, 621-625.
135. Malkinson, M.; Banet, C.; Weisman, Y.; Pokamunski, S.; King, R.; Drouet, M.T.; Deubel, V. Introduction of West Nile virus in the Middle East by migrating white storks. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2002, 8, 392-397.
136. Tempelis, C.H.; Reeves, W.C.; Bellamy, R.E.; Lofy, M.F. A three-year study of the feeding habits of Culex tarsalis in Kern County, California. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1965, 14, 170-177.
137. Tempelis, C.H.; Francy, D.B.; Hayes, R.O.; Lofy, M.F. Variations in feeding patterns of seven culicine mosquitoes on vertebrate hosts in Weld and Larimer counties, Colorado. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1967, 111-119.
138. Root, J.J.; Oesterle, P.T.; Nemeth, N.M.; Klenk, K.; Gould, D.H.; McLean, R.G.; Clark, L.; Hall, J.S. Experimental infection of fox squirrels (Sciurus niger) with West Nile virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2006, 75, 697-701.
139. Gomez, A.; Kramer, L.D.; Dupuis, A.P.; Kilpatrick, A.M.; Davis, L.J.; Jones, M.J.; Daszak, P.; Aguirre, A.A. Experimental infection of eastern gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) with West Nile virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2008, 79, 447-451.
140. Gomez, A.; Kilpatrick, A.M.; Kramer, L.D.; Dupuis, A.P.; Maffei, J.G.; Goetz, S.J.; Marra, P.P.; Daszak, P.; Aguirre, A.A. Land use and west nile virus seroprevalence in wild mammals. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14, 962-965.
141. Root, J.J. West Nile virus associations in wild mammals: A synthesis. Arch. Virol. 2013, 158, 735-752.
142. Smithburn, K.C.; Hughes, T.P.; Burke, A.W.; Paul, J.H. A neurotropic virus isolated from the blood of a native of Uganda. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1940, 20, 471-473.
143. May, F.J.; Davis, C.T.; Tesh, R.B.; Barrett, A.D. Phylogeography of West Nile virus: From the cradle of evolution in Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 2964-2974.
144. Papa, A.; Bakonyi, T.; Xanthopoulou, K.; Vazquez, A.; Tenorio, A.; Nowotny, N. Genetic characterization of West Nile virus lineage 2, Greece, 2010. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2011, 17, 920-922.
145. Ciccozzi, M.; Peletto, S.; Cella, E.; Giovanetti, M.; Lai, A.; Gabanelli, E.; Acutis, P.L.; Modesto, P.; Rezza, G.; Platonov, A.E.; et al. Epidemiological history and phylogeography of West Nile virus lineage 2. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2013, 17, 46-50.
146. Beasley, D.W.; Li, L.; Suderman, M.T.; Barrett, A.D. Mouse neuroinvasive phenotype of West Nile virus strains varies depending upon virus genotype. Virology 2002, 296, 17-23.
147. Bakonyi, T.; Hubalek, Z.; Rudolf, I.; Nowotny, N. Novel flavivirus or new lineage of West Nile virus, central Europe. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2005, 11, 225-231.
148. Hubalek, Z.; Rudolf, I.; Bakonyi, T.; Kazdova, K.; Halouzka, J.; Sebesta, O.; Sikutova, S.; Juricova, Z.; Nowotny, N. Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) surveillance for arboviruses in an area endemic for West Nile (Lineage Rabensburg) and Tahyna viruses in Central Europe. J. Med. Entomol. 2010, 47, 466-472.
149. Aliota, M.T.; Jones, S.A.; Dupuis, A.P.; Ciota, A.T.; Hubalek, Z.; Kramer, L.D. Characterization of Rabensburg virus, a flavivirus closely related to West Nile virus of the Japanese encephalitis antigenic group. PLoS One 2012, 7, e39387.
150. Prilipov, A.G.; Kinney, R.M.; Samokhvalov, E.I.; Savage, H.M.; Al'khovskii, S.V.; Tsuchiya, K.R.; Gromashevskii, V.L.; Sadykova, G.K.; Shatalov, A.G.; Vyshemirskii, O.I.; et al. Analysis of new variants of West Nile fever virus. Vopr. Virusol. 2002, 47, 36-41.
151. Vazquez, A.; Sanchez-Seco, M.P.; Ruiz, S.; Molero, F.; Hernandez, L.; Moreno, J.; Magallanes, A.; Tejedor, C.G.; Tenorio, A. Putative new lineage of west nile virus, Spain. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2010, 16, 549-552.
152. Bondre, V.P.; Jadi, R.S.; Mishra, A.C.; Yergolkar, P.N.; Arankalle, V.A. West Nile virus isolates from India: Evidence for a distinct genetic lineage. J. Gen. Virol. 2007, 88, 875-884.
153. Scherret, J.H.; Poidinger, M.; Mackenzie, J.S.; Broom, A.K.; Deubel, V.; Lipkin, W.I.; Briese, T.; Gould, E.A.; Hall, R.A. The relationships between West Nile and Kunjin viruses. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2001, 4, 697-705.
154. Charrel, R.N.; Brault, A.C.; Gallian, P.; Lemasson, J.J.; Murgue, B.; Murri, S.; Pastorino, B.; Zeller, H.; de Chesse, R.; de Micco, P.; et al. Evolutionary relationship between Old World West Nile virus strains. Evidence for viral gene flow between Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. Virology 2003, 315, 381-388.
155. Malkinson, M.; Banet, C.; Weisman, Y.; Pokamonski, S.; King, R.; Deubel, V. Intercontinental transmission of West Nile virus by migrating white storks. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2001, 7, PMC2631856.
156. McMullen, A.R.; May, F.J.; Li, L.; Guzman, H.; Bueno, R., Jr.; Dennett, J.A.; Tesh, R.B.; Barrett, A.D. Evolution of new genotype of West Nile virus in North America. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2011, 17, 785-793.
157. Armstrong, P.M.; Vossbrinck, C.R.; Andreadis, T.G.; Anderson, J.F.; Pesko, K.N.; Newman, R.M.; Lennon, N.J.; Birren, B.W.; Ebel, G.D.; Henn, M.R. Molecular evolution of West Nile virus in a northern temperate region: Connecticut, USA 1999-2008. Virology 2011, 417, 203-210.
158. Brault, A.C.; Huang, C.Y.; Langevin, S.A.; Kinney, R.M.; Bowen, R.A.; Ramey, W.N.; Panella, N.A.; Holmes, E.C.; Powers, A.M.; Miller, B.R. A single positively selected West Nile viral mutation confers increased virogenesis in American crows. Nat. Genet. 2007, 39, 1162-1166.
159. Pesko, K.N.; Ebel, G.D. West Nile virus population genetics and evolution. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2012, 12, 181-190.
160. Scholle, F.; Girard, Y.A.; Zhao, Q.Z.; Higgs, S.; Mason, P.W. Trans-Packaged West Nile virus-like particles: Infectious properties in vitro and in infected mosquito vectors. J. Virol. 2004, 78, 11605-11614.
161. Ciota, A.T.; Ehrbar, D.J.; van Slyke, G.A.; Payne, A.F.; Willsey, G.G.; Viscio, R.E.; Kramer, L.D. Quantification of intrahost bottlenecks of West Nile virus in Culex pipiens mosquitoes using an artificial mutant swarm. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2012, 12, 557-564.
162. Brackney, D.E.; Pesko, K.N.; Brown, I.K.; Deardorff, E.R.; Kawatachi, J.; Ebel, G.D. West Nile virus genetic diversity is maintained during transmission by Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus Mosquitoes. PLoS One 2011, 6, e24466.
163. Drake, J.W. Rates of Spontaneous Mutation Among RNA Viruses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1993, 90, 4171-4175.
164. Jerzak, G.V.; Bernard, K.; Kramer, L.D.; Shi, P.Y.; Ebel, G.D. The West Nile virus mutant spectrum is host-dependant and a determinant of mortality in mice. Virology 2007, 360, 469-476.
165. Bertolotti, L.; Kitron, U.; Goldberg, T.L. Diversity and evolution of West Nile virus in Illinois and the United States, 2002-2005. Virology 2007, 360, 143-149.
166. Amore, G.; Bertolotti, L.; Hamer, G.L.; Kitron, U.D.; Walker, E.D.; Ruiz, M.O.; Brawn, J.D.; Goldberg, T.L. Multi-year evolutionary dynamics of West Nile virus in suburban Chicago, USA, 2005-2007. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 2010, 365, 1871-1878.
167. Jerzak, G.; Bernard, K.A.; Kramer, L.D.; Ebel, G.D. Genetic variation in West Nile virus from naturally infected mosquitoes and birds suggests quasispecies structure and strong purifying selection. J. Gen. Virol. 2005, 86, 2175-2183.
168. Ciota, A.T.; Jia, Y.; Payne, A.F.; Jerzak, G.; Davis, L.J.; Young, D.S.; Ehrbar, D.; Kramer, L.D. Experimental passage of St. Louis encephalitis virus in vivo in mosquitoes and chickens reveals evolutionarily significant virus characteristics. PLoS One 2009, 4, e7876.
169. Ciota, A.T.; Ehrbar, D.J.; van Slyke, G.A.; Willsey, G.G.; Kramer, L.D. Cooperative interactions in the West Nile virus mutant swarm. BMC Evol. Biol. 2012, 12, doi:10.1186/1471-2148-12-58.
170. Ciota, A.T.; Lovelace, A.O.; Jones, S.A.; Payne, A.; Kramer, L.D. Adaptation of two flaviviruses results in differences in genetic heterogeneity and virus adaptability. J. Gen. Virol. 2007, 88, 2398-2406.
171. Brackney, D.E.; Beane, J.E.; Ebel, G.D. RNAi targeting of West Nile virus in mosquito midguts promotes virus diversification. PLoS Pathog. 2009, 5, e1000502.
172. Fitzpatrick, K.A.; Deardorff, E.R.; Pesko, K.; Brackney, D.E.; Zhang, B.; Bedrick, E.; Shi, P.Y.; Ebel, G.D. Population variation of West Nile virus confers a host-specific fitness benefit in mosquitoes. Virology 2010, 404, 89-95.
173. Ciota, A.T.; Lovelace, A.O.; Jia, Y.; Davis, L.J.; Young, D.S.; Kramer, L.D. Characterization of mosquito-adapted West Nile virus. J. Gen. Virol. 2008, 89, 1633-1642.
174. Bugbee, L.M.; Forte, L.R. The discovery of West Nile virus in overwintering Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes in Lehigh County, Pennsylvania. J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 2004, 20, 326-327.
175. Farajollahi, A.; Crans, W.J.; Nickerson, D.; Bryant, P.; Wolf, B.; Glaser, A.; Andreadis, T.G. Detection of West Nile virus RNA from the louse fly Icosta Americana (Diptera: Hippoboscidae). J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 2005, 21, 474-476.
176. Reisen, W.K.; Fang, Y.; Lothrop, H.D.; Martinez, V.M.; Wilson, J.; O'Connor, P.; Carney, R.; Cahoon-Young, B.; Shafii, M.; Brault, A.C. Overwintering of West Nile Virus in Southern California. J. Med. Entomol. 2006, 43, 344-355.
177. Dohm, D.J.; Sardelis, M.R.; Turell, M.J. Experimental vertical transmission of West Nile virus by Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Entomol. 2002, 39, 640-644.
178. Nelms, B.M.; Fechter-Leggett, E.; Carroll, B.D.; Macedo, P.; Kluh, S.; Reisen, W.K. Experimental and natural vertical transmission of West Nile virus by California Culex (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes. J. Med. Entomol. 2013, 50, 371-378.
179. Ciota, A.T.; Koch, E.M.; Willsey, G.G.; Davis, L.J.; Jerzak, G.V.; Ehrbar, D.J.; Wilke, C.O.; Kramer, L.D. Temporal and spatial alterations in mutant swarm size of St. Louis encephalitis virus in mosquito hosts. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2011, 11, 460-468.
180. Davis, C.T.; Ebel, G.D.; Lanciotti, R.S.; Brault, A.C.; Guzman, H.; Siirin, M.; Lambert, A.; Parsons, R.E.; Beasley, D.W.; Novak, R.J.; et al. Phylogenetic analysis of North American West Nile virus isolates, 2001-2004: Evidence for the emergence of a dominant genotype. Virology 2005, 342, 252-265.
181. Twiddy, S.S.; Pybus, O.G.; Holmes, E.C. Comparative population dynamics of mosquito-borne flaviviruses. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2003, 3, 87-95.
182. Woolhouse, M.E.; Taylor, L.H.; Haydon, D.T. Population biology of multihost pathogens. Science 2001, 292, 1109-1112.
183. Scott, T.W.; Weaver, S.C.; Mallampalli, V.L. Evolution of Mosquito-Borne Viruses. In The Evolutionary Biology of Viruses; Morse, S.S., Ed.; Raven Press, Ltd.: New York, NY, USA, 1994; pp. 293-324.
184. Levins, R. Evolution in Changing Environments; Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ, USA, 1968.
185. Ciota, A.T.; Lovelace, A.O.; Ngo, K.A.; Le, A.N.; Maffei, J.G.; Franke, M.A.; Payne, A.F.; Jones, S.A.; Kauffman, E.B.; Kramer, L.D. Cell-specific adaptation of two flaviviruses following serial passage in mosquito cell culture. Virology 2007, 357, 165-174.
186. Deardorff, E.R.; Fitzpatrick, K.A.; Jerzak, G.V.; Shi, P.Y.; Kramer, L.D.; Ebel, G.D. West Nile virus experimental evolution in vivo and the trade-off hypothesis. PLoS Pathog. 2011, 7, e1002335.
187. Wilke, C.O.; Wang, J.L.; Ofria, C.; Lenski, R.E.; Adami, C. Evolution of digital organisms at high mutation rates leads to survival of the flattest. Nature 2001, 412, 331-333.
188. Tsetsarkin, K.A.; McGee, C.E.; Volk, S.M.; Vanlandingham, D.L.; Weaver, S.C.; Higgs, S. Epistatic roles of E2 glycoprotein mutations in adaption of chikungunya virus to Aedes albopictus and Ae. Aegypti mosquitoes. PLoS One 2009, 4, e6835.
189. Weaver, S.C.; Reisen, W.K. Present and future arboviral threats. Antivir. Res. 2010, 85, 328-345.
190. Aaskov, J.; Buzacott, K.; Thu, H.M.; Lowry, K.; Holmes, E.C. Long-term transmission of defective RNA viruses in humans and Aedes mosquitoes. Science 2006, 311, 236-238.
191. Lambrechts, L. Dissecting the genetic architecture of host-pathogen specificity. PLoS Pathog. 2010, 6, e1001019.
192. Lambrechts, L.; Quillery, E.; Noel, V.; Richardson, J.H.; Jarman, R.G.; Scott, T.W.; Chevillon, C. Specificity of resistance to dengue virus isolates is associated with genotypes of the mosquito antiviral gene Dicer-2. Proc. Biol. Sci. 2013, 280, doi: 10.1098/rspb.2012.2437.
193. Snappin, K.W.; Holmes, E.C.; Young, D.S.; Bernard, K.A.; Kramer, L.D.; Ebel, G.D. Declining growth rate of West Nile virus in North America. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 2531-2534.
194. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. West Nile virus disease cases and deaths reported to CDC by year and clinical presentation, 1999-2012. Available online: http://www.cdc.gov/westnile/ resources/pdfs/cummulative/99_2012_CasesAndDeathsClinicalPresentationHumanCases.pdf (accessed 1 December 2013).
195. Duggal, N.K.; D'Anton, M.; Xiang, J.; Seiferth, R.; Day, J.; Nasci, R.; Brault, A.C. Sequence analyses of 2012 west nile virus isolates from Texas fail to associate viral genetic factors with outbreak magnitude. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2013, 89, 205-210.