-
3
-
-
0342466243
-
-
Office International des Epizooties list A and list B diseases [www.oie.int/eng/maladies/en_classification.htm].
-
-
-
-
4
-
-
0342900519
-
-
M. C Whitlock, Am. Nat. 148, 565 (1996); J. D. Fry, Am. Nat. 148, S84 (1996); T. J. Kawecki, Am. Nat. 152, 635 (1998).
-
(1996)
Am. Nat.
, vol.148
, pp. 565
-
-
Whitlock, M.C.1
-
5
-
-
0030303556
-
-
M. C Whitlock, Am. Nat. 148, 565 (1996); J. D. Fry, Am. Nat. 148, S84 (1996); T. J. Kawecki, Am. Nat. 152, 635 (1998).
-
(1996)
Am. Nat.
, vol.148
-
-
Fry, J.D.1
-
6
-
-
0031695918
-
-
M. C Whitlock, Am. Nat. 148, 565 (1996); J. D. Fry, Am. Nat. 148, S84 (1996); T. J. Kawecki, Am. Nat. 152, 635 (1998).
-
(1998)
Am. Nat.
, vol.152
, pp. 635
-
-
Kawecki, T.J.1
-
9
-
-
0032576751
-
-
W. Bitter et al., Nature 391, 499 (1998).
-
(1998)
Nature
, vol.391
, pp. 499
-
-
Bitter, W.1
-
11
-
-
0032473418
-
-
J. H. M. Simon et al., EMBO J. 17, 1259 (1998); L. L. Kuo et al., J. Virol. 74, 1393 (2000); E. H. Hartland et al., Infect. Immun. 68, 4637 (2000).
-
(1998)
EMBO J.
, vol.17
, pp. 1259
-
-
Simon, J.H.M.1
-
12
-
-
0033982337
-
-
J. H. M. Simon et al., EMBO J. 17, 1259 (1998); L. L. Kuo et al., J. Virol. 74, 1393 (2000); E. H. Hartland et al., Infect. Immun. 68, 4637 (2000).
-
(2000)
J. Virol.
, vol.74
, pp. 1393
-
-
Kuo, L.L.1
-
13
-
-
0033925405
-
-
J. H. M. Simon et al., EMBO J. 17, 1259 (1998); L. L. Kuo et al., J. Virol. 74, 1393 (2000); E. H. Hartland et al., Infect. Immun. 68, 4637 (2000).
-
(2000)
Infect. Immun.
, vol.68
, pp. 4637
-
-
Hartland, E.H.1
-
14
-
-
0033843717
-
-
Y. A. Smirnov et al., Acta Virol. 44, 1 (2000); D. J. Alexander, I. H. Brown, Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epizoot. 19, 197 (2000).
-
(2000)
Acta Virol.
, vol.44
, pp. 1
-
-
Smirnov, Y.A.1
-
17
-
-
0028130521
-
-
T. Binz et al., Virus Res. 34, 281 (1994).
-
(1994)
Virus Res.
, vol.34
, pp. 281
-
-
Binz, T.1
-
19
-
-
0034723385
-
-
B. H. Hahn et al., Science 287, 607 (2000).
-
(2000)
Science
, vol.287
, pp. 607
-
-
Hahn, B.H.1
-
21
-
-
0026350804
-
-
M. A. Nowak et al., Science 254, 963 (1991); S. Morand et al., Proc. R. Soc. London B 263, 119 (1996); D. T. Haydon, M. E. J. Woolhouse, J. Theor, Biol. 193, 601 (1998); S. Gupta, N. Ferguson, R. Anderson, Science 280, 912 (1998).
-
(1991)
Science
, vol.254
, pp. 963
-
-
Nowak, M.A.1
-
22
-
-
0029730180
-
-
M. A. Nowak et al., Science 254, 963 (1991); S. Morand et al., Proc. R. Soc. London B 263, 119 (1996); D. T. Haydon, M. E. J. Woolhouse, J. Theor, Biol. 193, 601 (1998); S. Gupta, N. Ferguson, R. Anderson, Science 280, 912 (1998).
-
(1996)
Proc. R. Soc. London B
, vol.263
, pp. 119
-
-
Morand, S.1
-
23
-
-
0032555444
-
-
M. A. Nowak et al., Science 254, 963 (1991); S. Morand et al., Proc. R. Soc. London B 263, 119 (1996); D. T. Haydon, M. E. J. Woolhouse, J. Theor, Biol. 193, 601 (1998); S. Gupta, N. Ferguson, R. Anderson, Science 280, 912 (1998).
-
(1998)
J. Theor, Biol.
, vol.193
, pp. 601
-
-
Haydon, D.T.1
Woolhouse, M.E.J.2
-
24
-
-
0032496361
-
-
M. A. Nowak et al., Science 254, 963 (1991); S. Morand et al., Proc. R. Soc. London B 263, 119 (1996); D. T. Haydon, M. E. J. Woolhouse, J. Theor, Biol. 193, 601 (1998); S. Gupta, N. Ferguson, R. Anderson, Science 280, 912 (1998).
-
(1998)
Science
, vol.280
, pp. 912
-
-
Gupta, S.1
Ferguson, N.2
Anderson, R.3
-
25
-
-
0027196181
-
-
P. A. Cane, Trends Microbiol. 1, 156 (1993); S. Wain-Hobson, Trends Microbiol. 4, 135 (1996); J. P. Horst, Trends Microbiol. 7, 29 (1999); J. W. Drake, J. J. Holland, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96, 13910 (1999); G. Rudenko, Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2, 651 (1999).
-
(1993)
Trends Microbiol.
, vol.1
, pp. 156
-
-
Cane, P.A.1
-
26
-
-
0029879148
-
-
P. A. Cane, Trends Microbiol. 1, 156 (1993); S. Wain-Hobson, Trends Microbiol. 4, 135 (1996); J. P. Horst, Trends Microbiol. 7, 29 (1999); J. W. Drake, J. J. Holland, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96, 13910 (1999); G. Rudenko, Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2, 651 (1999).
-
(1996)
Trends Microbiol.
, vol.4
, pp. 135
-
-
Wain-Hobson, S.1
-
27
-
-
0032972974
-
-
P. A. Cane, Trends Microbiol. 1, 156 (1993); S. Wain-Hobson, Trends Microbiol. 4, 135 (1996); J. P. Horst, Trends Microbiol. 7, 29 (1999); J. W. Drake, J. J. Holland, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96, 13910 (1999); G. Rudenko, Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2, 651 (1999).
-
(1999)
Trends Microbiol.
, vol.7
, pp. 29
-
-
Horst, J.P.1
-
28
-
-
0033598717
-
-
P. A. Cane, Trends Microbiol. 1, 156 (1993); S. Wain-Hobson, Trends Microbiol. 4, 135 (1996); J. P. Horst, Trends Microbiol. 7, 29 (1999); J. W. Drake, J. J. Holland, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96, 13910 (1999); G. Rudenko, Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2, 651 (1999).
-
(1999)
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
, vol.96
, pp. 13910
-
-
Drake, J.W.1
Holland, J.J.2
-
29
-
-
0032693050
-
-
P. A. Cane, Trends Microbiol. 1, 156 (1993); S. Wain-Hobson, Trends Microbiol. 4, 135 (1996); J. P. Horst, Trends Microbiol. 7, 29 (1999); J. W. Drake, J. J. Holland, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96, 13910 (1999); G. Rudenko, Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2, 651 (1999).
-
(1999)
Curr. Opin. Microbiol.
, vol.2
, pp. 651
-
-
Rudenko, G.1
-
30
-
-
0343335502
-
-
note
-
12 virus particles exhaled per day.
-
-
-
-
31
-
-
0021715773
-
-
Many authors suggest that exposure to a few compatible pathogens, or even just one, may result in infection [R. L. Ward, E. W. Akin, CRC Crit. Rev. Environ. Control 14, 297 (1984); W. A. Cafruny, D. E. Hovinen, J. Virol. Methods 20, 265 (1988); D. A. Blewett et al., Water Sci. Technol. 27, 61 (1993); P. Sutmoller, D. J. Vose, Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epizoot. 16, 30 (1997); A. R. McLean, C. J. Bostock, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London B 355, 1043 (2000)].
-
(1984)
CRC Crit. Rev. Environ. Control
, vol.14
, pp. 297
-
-
Ward, R.L.1
Akin, E.W.2
-
32
-
-
0023783902
-
-
Many authors suggest that exposure to a few compatible pathogens, or even just one, may result in infection [R. L. Ward, E. W. Akin, CRC Crit. Rev. Environ. Control 14, 297 (1984); W. A. Cafruny, D. E. Hovinen, J. Virol. Methods 20, 265 (1988); D. A. Blewett et al., Water Sci. Technol. 27, 61 (1993); P. Sutmoller, D. J. Vose, Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epizoot. 16, 30 (1997); A. R. McLean, C. J. Bostock, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London B 355, 1043 (2000)].
-
(1988)
J. Virol. Methods
, vol.20
, pp. 265
-
-
Cafruny, W.A.1
Hovinen, D.E.2
-
33
-
-
0027180577
-
-
Many authors suggest that exposure to a few compatible pathogens, or even just one, may result in infection [R. L. Ward, E. W. Akin, CRC Crit. Rev. Environ. Control 14, 297 (1984); W. A. Cafruny, D. E. Hovinen, J. Virol. Methods 20, 265 (1988); D. A. Blewett et al., Water Sci. Technol. 27, 61 (1993); P. Sutmoller, D. J. Vose, Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epizoot. 16, 30 (1997); A. R. McLean, C. J. Bostock, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London B 355, 1043 (2000)].
-
(1993)
Water Sci. Technol.
, vol.27
, pp. 61
-
-
Blewett, D.A.1
-
34
-
-
0031107636
-
-
Many authors suggest that exposure to a few compatible pathogens, or even just one, may result in infection [R. L. Ward, E. W. Akin, CRC Crit. Rev. Environ. Control 14, 297 (1984); W. A. Cafruny, D. E. Hovinen, J. Virol. Methods 20, 265 (1988); D. A. Blewett et al., Water Sci. Technol. 27, 61 (1993); P. Sutmoller, D. J. Vose, Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epizoot. 16, 30 (1997); A. R. McLean, C. J. Bostock, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London B 355, 1043 (2000)].
-
(1997)
Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epizoot.
, vol.16
, pp. 30
-
-
Sutmoller, P.1
Vose, D.J.2
-
35
-
-
0034730047
-
-
Many authors suggest that exposure to a few compatible pathogens, or even just one, may result in infection [R. L. Ward, E. W. Akin, CRC Crit. Rev. Environ. Control 14, 297 (1984); W. A. Cafruny, D. E. Hovinen, J. Virol. Methods 20, 265 (1988); D. A. Blewett et al., Water Sci. Technol. 27, 61 (1993); P. Sutmoller, D. J. Vose, Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epizoot. 16, 30 (1997); A. R. McLean, C. J. Bostock, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London B 355, 1043 (2000)].
-
(2000)
Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London B
, vol.355
, pp. 1043
-
-
McLean, A.R.1
Bostock, C.J.2
-
38
-
-
12644311249
-
-
M. E. J. Woolhouse et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94, 338 (1997); G. Hide et al., Parasitol. Today 12, 50 (1996); C. C. Lord et al., Med. Vet. Entomol. 10, 19 (1996).
-
(1997)
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
, vol.94
, pp. 338
-
-
Woolhouse, M.E.J.1
-
39
-
-
0030025528
-
-
M. E. J. Woolhouse et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94, 338 (1997); G. Hide et al., Parasitol. Today 12, 50 (1996); C. C. Lord et al., Med. Vet. Entomol. 10, 19 (1996).
-
(1996)
Parasitol. Today
, vol.12
, pp. 50
-
-
Hide, G.1
-
40
-
-
0029667003
-
-
M. E. J. Woolhouse et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94, 338 (1997); G. Hide et al., Parasitol. Today 12, 50 (1996); C. C. Lord et al., Med. Vet. Entomol. 10, 19 (1996).
-
(1996)
Med. Vet. Entomol.
, vol.10
, pp. 19
-
-
Lord, C.C.1
-
42
-
-
0342466181
-
-
note
-
For example, the orders Diptera, Siphonaptera, Hemiptera, Phthiraptera, and Acari all contain species that act as vectors of pathogens from a variety of taxa.
-
-
-
-
43
-
-
0343771398
-
-
note
-
Virulence is defined as a reduction in host fitness associated with infection by a pathogen.
-
-
-
-
44
-
-
0025632808
-
-
G. Dwyer et al., Ecol. Monogr. 60, 423 (1990); J. J. Bull, Evolution 48, 1423 (1994); M. Lipsitch, E. R. Moxon, Trends Microbiol. 5, 31 (1997).
-
(1990)
Ecol. Monogr.
, vol.60
, pp. 423
-
-
Dwyer, G.1
-
45
-
-
0028162943
-
-
G. Dwyer et al., Ecol. Monogr. 60, 423 (1990); J. J. Bull, Evolution 48, 1423 (1994); M. Lipsitch, E. R. Moxon, Trends Microbiol. 5, 31 (1997).
-
(1994)
Evolution
, vol.48
, pp. 1423
-
-
Bull, J.J.1
-
46
-
-
0031046954
-
-
G. Dwyer et al., Ecol. Monogr. 60, 423 (1990); J. J. Bull, Evolution 48, 1423 (1994); M. Lipsitch, E. R. Moxon, Trends Microbiol. 5, 31 (1997).
-
(1997)
Trends Microbiol.
, vol.5
, pp. 31
-
-
Lipsitch, M.1
Moxon, E.R.2
-
50
-
-
0029993942
-
-
Single-host pathogens too can occur as outbreaks in isolated host subpopulations [C. J. Rhodes, R. M. Anderson, Nature 381, 600 (1996)].
-
(1996)
Nature
, vol.381
, pp. 600
-
-
Rhodes, C.J.1
Anderson, R.M.2
-
51
-
-
0034687411
-
-
M. J. Keeling and C. A. Gilligan [Nature 407, 903 (2000)] describe a model of the dynamics of a vectorborne zoonotic disease, bubonic plague, which reproduces outbreaks in one host population (humans) as a consequence of small changes in the epidemiology of endemic infection in another host population (rats).
-
(2000)
Nature
, vol.407
, pp. 903
-
-
Keeling, M.J.1
Gilligan, C.A.2
-
52
-
-
36949080948
-
-
L. R. Taylor, Nature 189, 732 (1961).
-
(1961)
Nature
, vol.189
, pp. 732
-
-
Taylor, L.R.1
-
53
-
-
0001281379
-
-
G. E. Hutchinson, Am. Nat. 93, 145 (1959); T. de Meeus et al., Parasitol. Today 14, 10 (1998).
-
(1959)
Am. Nat.
, vol.93
, pp. 145
-
-
Hutchinson, G.E.1
-
54
-
-
0031887551
-
-
G. E. Hutchinson, Am. Nat. 93, 145 (1959); T. de Meeus et al., Parasitol. Today 14, 10 (1998).
-
(1998)
Parasitol. Today
, vol.14
, pp. 10
-
-
De Meeus, T.1
-
56
-
-
0343335497
-
-
note
-
For example, Schistosoma haematobium is a predominantly human parasite, whereas the congeneric S. japonicum infects a wide range of host species, including humans. Similarly, one subspecies of Trypanosoma brucei, T. b. gambiense, is a predominantly human parasite, whereas another subspecies, T. b. rhodesiense, infects a wide range of hosts, including humans.
-
-
-
-
58
-
-
0342900478
-
-
Escherichia coli O157 data, from the Scottish Centre for Infection and Environmental Health (www. show.scot.nhs.uk/scieh/), exclude sporadic cases and cases from the same household. Ebola data are from ProMed (www.promedmail.org), and S. aureus data are from Health Canada (www.hc-sc.gc.ca).
-
-
-
-
59
-
-
0342466175
-
-
note
-
Details available from the authors on request.
-
-
-
-
60
-
-
0342466174
-
-
note
-
We gratefully acknowledge colleagues at the Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine for valuable discussions, and the Wellcome Trust for financial support.
-
-
-
|