On Gains and Losses, Means and Ends: Goal Orientation and Goal Focus Across Adulthood

The Oxford Handbook of Human Motivation

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages

  Freund, Alexandra M ^a   Hennecke, Marie ^a   Mustafić, Maida ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Adult development; Ends; Failure; Goal focus; Goal orientation; Means; Resources; Time perspective

Indexed keywords

EID: 84889678309     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195399820.013.0016     Document Type: Chapter

References (124)

1. Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. P., & Taesdale, J. P. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49-74.
2. Ariely, D., & Wertenbroch, K. (2002). Procrastination, deadlines, and performance: Self-control by precommitment. Psychological Science, 13, 219-224.
3. Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 338-375.
4. Baltes, P. B. (1987). Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: On the dynamics between growth and decline. Developmental Psychology, 23, 611-626.
5. Baltes, P. B. (1997). On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation of developmental theory. American Psychologist, 52, 366-380.
6. Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1990). Psychological perspectives on successful aging: The model of selective optimization with compensation. In P. B. Baltes & M. M. Baltes (Eds.), Successful aging: Perspectives from the behavioral sciences (pp. 1-34). New York: Cambridge University Press.
7. Baltes, P. B., Lindenberger, U., & Staudinger, U. M. (1998). Life-span theory in developmental psychology. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology. Vol. 1: Theoretical models of human development (5th ed., pp. 1029-1143). New York: Wiley.
8. Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. (2003). New frontiers in the future of aging: From successful aging of the young old to the dilemmas of the fourth age. Gerontology, 49, 123-135.
9. Bargh, J. A., & Ferguson, M. J. (2000). Beyond behaviorism: On the automaticity of higher mental processes. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 925-945.
10. Bargh, J. A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1994). Environmental control of goal-directed action: Automatic and strategic contingencies between situations and behavior. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 41, 71-124.
11. Bargh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., Lee-Chai, A., Barndollar, K., & Trötschel, R. (2001). The automated will: Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1014-1027.
12. Bargh, J. A., & Pratto, F. (1986). Individual construct accessibility and perceptual selection. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 22, 293-311.
13. Boden, M. A. (1973). The structure of intentions. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 3, 23-46.
14. agerelated analysis of assimilative and accommodative strategies of coping. Psychology and Aging, 5, 58-67.
15. Burnette, J. L. (2010). Implicit theories of body weight: Entity beliefs can weigh you down. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 410-422.
16. Buss, D. M. (1999). Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
17. Carstensen, L. L., Isaacowitz, D. M., & Charles, S. T. (1999). Taking time seriously: A theory of socio-emotional selectivity. American Psychologist, 54, 165-181.
18. Caruso, E. M., Gilbert, D. T., & Wilson, T. D. (2008). A wrinkle in time: Asymmetric valuation of past and future events. Psychological Science, 19, 796-801.
19. Carver, C. S. (2004). Self-regulation of action and affect. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 13-39). New York: Guilford Press.
20. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control-theory approach to human behavior. New York: Springer.
21. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1982). Control theory: A useful conceptual framework for personality, social, clinical, and health psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 111-135.
22. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1990). Origins and functions of positive and negative affect: A control-process view. Psychological Review, 97, 19-35.
23. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.
24. Cochran, W., & Tesser, A. (1996). The "what the hell" effect: Some effects of goal proximity and goal framing on performance. In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), Striving and feeling: Interactions among goals, affect and selfregulation (pp. 99-120). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
25. Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 83, 407-428.
26. Deci, E. L, Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 627-668.
27. Duke, J., Leventhal, H., Brownlee, S., & Leventhal, E. A. (2002). Giving up and replacing activities in response to illness. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 57, 367-376.
28. Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256-273.
29. Dweck, C. S., & Molden, D. C. (2005). Self-theories: Their impact on competence motivation and acquisition. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 122-140). New York: Guilford Press.
30. Earley, P. C., Northcraft, G. B., Lee, C., & Lituchy, T. R. (1990). Impact of process and outcome feedback on the relation of goal setting to task performance. Academy of Management Journal, 33, 87-105.
31. Ebner, N. C., Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2006). Developmental changes in personal goal orientation from young to late adulthood: From striving for gains to maintenance and prevention of losses. Psychology and Aging, 21, 664-678.
32. Elliott, A. J., & Friedman, R. (2007). Approach-avoidance: A central characteristic of personal goals. In B. R. Little, K. Salmela-Aro, J. E. Nurmi, & S. D. Phillips (Eds.), Personal project pursuit: Goals, action and human flourishing (pp. 97-118). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
33. Emmons, R. A. (1989). The personal striving approach to personality. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 87-126). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
34. Emmons, R. A. (1992). Abstract versus concrete goals: Personal striving level, physical illness, and psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 292-300.
35. Emmons, R. A. (1996). Striving and feeling: Personal goals and subjective well-being. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 313-337). New York:Guilford Press.
36. Förster, J., Liberman, N., & Friedman, R. S. (2007). Seven principles of goal activation: A systematic approach to distinguishing goal priming from priming of non-goal constructs. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11, 211-233.
37. Förster, J., Liberman, N., & Higgins, E. T. (2005). Accessibility from active and fulfilled goals. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 220-239.
38. Freitas, A. L., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Trope, Y. (2004). The influence of abstract and concrete mindsets on anticipating and guiding others' self-regulatory efforts. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 739-752.
39. Freund, A. M. (2006). Differential motivational consequences of goal focus in younger and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 21, 240-252.
40. Freund, A. M. (2007). Levels of goals: Understanding motivational processes across adulthood. In B. R. Little, K. Salmela-Aro, & S. D. Phillips (Eds.), Personal project pursuit: Goals, action and human flourishing (pp. 87-116). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
41. Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1998). Selection, optimization, and compensation as strategies of life-management:Correlations with subjective indicators of successful aging. Psychology and Aging, 13, 531-543.
42. Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2000). The orchestration of selection, optimization and compensation: An actiontheoretical conceptualization of a theory of developmental regulation. In W. J. Perrig & A. Grob (Eds.), Control of human behavior, mental processes, and consciousness: Essays in honor of the 60th birthday of August Flammer (pp. 35-58). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
43. Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2002). Life-management strategies of selection, optimization, and compensation:Measurement by self-report and construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 642-662.
44. Freund, A. M., & Ebner, N. C. (2005). The aging self: Shifting from promoting gains to balancing losses. In W. Greve, K. Rothermund, & D. Wentura (Eds.), The adaptive self: Personal continuity and intentional self-development (pp. 185-202). Ashland, OH: Hogrefe & Huber.
45. Freund, A. M., & Hennecke, M. (in press). Changing eating behavior vs. losing weight: The role of goal focus for weight loss in overweight women. Psychology and Health.
46. Freund, A. M., Hennecke, M., & Riediger, M. (2010). Age-related differences in outcome and process goal focus. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7, 198-222.
47. Freund, A. M., Li, K. Z. H., & Baltes, P. B. (1999). Successful development and aging: The role of selection, optimization, and compensation. In J. Brandtstädter & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Action and self-development: Theory and research through the life span (pp. 401-434). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
48. Freund, A. M., & Riediger, M. (2001). What I have and what I do: The role of resource loss and gain throughout life. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50, 370-380.
49. Freund, A. M., & Riediger, M. (2003). Successful aging. In R. M. Lerner, A. Easterbrooks, & J. Mistry (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychology. Volume 6: Developmental psychology (pp. 601-628). New York: Wiley.
50. Freund, A. M., & Riediger, M. (2006). Goals as building blocks of personality and development in adulthood. In D. K. Mroczek & T. D. Little (Eds.), Handbook of personality development (pp. 353-372). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
51. Fujita, K., & Han, H. A. (2009). Moving beyond deliberative control of impulses: The effect of construal levels on evaluative associations in self-control conflicts. Psychological Science, 20, 799-804.
52. Fujita, K., Trope, Y., Liberman, N., & Levin-Sagi, M. (2006). Construal levels and self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 351-367.
53. Fung, H. H., & Carstensen, L. L. (2004). Motivational changes in response to blocked goals and foreshortened time:Testing alternatives to socioemotional selectivity theory. Psychology and Aging, 19, 68-78.
54. Gestsdottir, S., & Lerner, R. M (2007). Intentional self-regulation and positive youth development in early adolescence: Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development. Developmental Psychology, 43, 508-521.
55. Gigerenzer, G., Todd, P. M., & The ABC Research Group. (1999). Simple heuristics that make us smart: Evolution and cognition. London, England: Oxford University Press.
56. Gollwitzer, P. M. (1996). The volitional benefits of planning. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action (pp. 287-312). New York: Guilford Press.
57. Gollwitzer, P. M., & Brandstätter, V. (1997). Implementation intentions and effective goal pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 186-199.
58. Gollwitzer, P. M., Heckhausen, H., & Steller, B. (1990). Deliberative and implemental mind-sets: Cognitive tuning toward congruous thoughts and information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 119-127.
59. Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Trauer, J. M., Carter, S. M., & Elliot, A. J. (2000). Short-term and long-term consequences of achievement goals: Predicting interest and performance over time. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 316-330.
60. Heckhausen, H. (1991). Motivation and action (P. K. Leppmann, Trans.). New York: Springer. (Original work published 1989).
61. Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11, 101-120.
62. Heckhausen, J. (1999). Developmental regulation in adulthood: Age-normative and sociostructural constraints as adaptive challenges. New York: Cambridge University Press.
63. Heckhausen, J., Dixon, R. A., & Baltes, P. B. (1989). Gains and losses in development throughout adulthood as perceived by different adult age groups. Developmental Psychology, 25, 109-121.
64. Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R. (1995). A life-span theory of control. Psychological Review, 102, 284-304.
65. Hennecke, M., & Freund, A. M. (2010). Staying on and getting back on the wagon: Age-related improvement in selfregulation during a low-calorie diet. Psychology and Aging, 25, 876-885.
66. Hennecke, M., & Freund, A. M. (in revision). The path or the goal? Process versus outcome focus and the mastery of failure.
67. Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280-1300.
68. Higgins, E. T., Bargh, J. A., & Lombardi, W. (1985). Nature of priming effects on categorization. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 58-69.
69. Houser-Marko, L., & Sheldon, K. (2006). Motivating behavioral persistence: The self-as-doer construct eyes on the prize or nose to the grindstone: The effects of level of goal evaluation on mood and motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 1037-1049.
70. Houser-Marko, L., & Sheldon, K. (2008). Eyes on the prize or nose to the grindstone: The effects of level of goal evaluation on mood and motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1556-1569.
71. Hsee, C. K., & Abelson, R. P. (1991). Velocity relation: Satisfaction as a function of the first derivative of outcome over time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 341-347.
72. Jopp, D., & Smith, J. (2006). Resources and life-management strategies as determinants of successful aging: On the protective effect of selection, optimization, and compensation. Psychology and Aging, 21, 253-265.
73. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263-291.
74. Kanfer, R. (1987). Task-specific motivation: An integrative approach to issues of measurement, mechanisms, processes, and determinants. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 5, 237-264.
75. Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (2004). Aging, adult development, and work motivation. Academy of Management Review, 3, 440-458.
76. Klinger, E. (1977). Meaning and void: Inner experience and the incentives in people's lives. Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press.
77. Krapp, A. (2005). Basic needs and the development of interest and intrinsic motivational orientations. Learning and Instruction, 15, 381-395.
78. Kruglanski, A. W. (1996). Goals as knowledge structures. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 599-618). New York: Guilford Press.
79. Kruglanski, A. W., & Jaffe, Y. (1988). Curing by knowing: The epistemic approach to cognitive therapy. In L. Abramson (Ed.), Social cognition and clinical psychology (pp. 254-291). New York: Guilford Press.
80. Kruglanski, A. W., Shah, J. Y., Fishbach, A., Friedman, R., Chun, W. Y., & Sleeth-Keppler, D. (2002). A theory of goal systems. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 34, pp. 331-378). San Diego, CA:Academic Press.
81. Kuhl, J., & Beckmann, J. (1994). Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation. Seattle, WA: Hogrefe & Huber.
82. Lang, F. R., & Carstensen, L. L. (2002). Time counts: Future time perspective, goals, and social relationships. Psychology and Aging, 17, 125-139.
83. Lang, F. R., Rieckmann, N., & Baltes, M. M. (2002). Adapting to aging losses: Do resources facilitate strategies of selection, compensation, and optimization in everyday functioning? The Journals of Gerontology Series B:Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57, 501-509.
84. Labouvie-Vief, G. (1981). Proactive and reactive aspects of constructivism: Growth and aging in life-span perspective. In R. M. Lerner & N. A. Busch-Rossnagel (Eds.), Individuals as producers of their development (pp. 197-230). New York: Academic Press.
85. Lepper, M. (1981). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in children: Detrimental effects of superfluous social controls. In W. W. Collins (Ed.), Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology (Vol. 14, pp. 155-214). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
86. Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the "overjustification" hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 129-137.
87. Little, B. R. (1989). Personal projects analysis: Trivial pursuits, magnificent obsessions, and the search for coherence. In D. M. Buss & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (pp. 15-31). New York: Springer.
88. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57, 705-717.
89. Manderlink, G., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1984). Proximal versus distal goal setting and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 918-928.
90. Martin, L. L., & Tesser, A. (1989). Toward a motivational and structural theory of ruminative thought. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 306-326). New York: Guilford Press.
91. Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H. (1960). Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: Henry Holt
92. Newman, J., & Taylor, A. (1992). Effect of a means-end contingency on young children's food preferences. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64, 200-216.
93. Pham, L. B., & Taylor, S. E. (1999). From thought to action: Effects of process- versus outcome-based mental simulations on performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 250-260.
94. Oettingen, G., & Hagenah, M. (2005). Fantasies and the self-regulation of competence. In A. Elliot & C. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 647-665). New York: Guilford.
95. Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (1985). Dieting as a problem in behavioral medicine. In E. Katkin & S. Manuck (Eds.), Advances in behavioral medicine (pp. 1-37). New York: SAI.
96. Pomerantz, E. M., Saxon, J. L., & Oishi, S. (2000). The psychological trade-offs of goal investment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 617-630.
97. Raynor, J. O. (1982). A theory of personality functioning and change. In J. O. Raynor & E. E. Entin (Eds.), Motivation, career striving and aging (pp.249-302). Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation.
98. Riediger, M., & Freund, A. M. (2004). Interference and facilitation among personal goals: Differential association with subjective well-being and persistent goal pursuit. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30,1511-1523.
99. Riediger, M., & Freund, A. M. (2006). Focusing and restricting: Two aspects of motivational selectivity in adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 21, 173-185.
100. Riediger, M., & Freund, A. M. (2008). Me against myself: Motivational conflicts and emotional development in adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 23, 479-494.
101. Riediger, M., Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2005). Managing life through personal goals: Intergoal facilitation and intensity of goal pursuit in younger and older adulthood. Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 60B, 84-91.
102. Röcke, C., Li, S-C., & Smith, J. (2009). Intraindividual variability in positive and negative affect over 45 days: Do older adults fluctuate less than young adults? Psychology and Aging, 24, 863-878.
103. Ryan, R. M, Sheldon, K. M., Kasser, T., & Deci, E. L. (1996). All goals are not created equal: An organismic perspective on the nature of goals and their regulation. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 7-26). New York: Guilford Press.
104. Sansone, C., & Thoman, D. B. (2005). Interest as the missing motivator in self-regulation. European Psychologist, 10, 175-186.
105. Schmitz, B., & Wiese, B. S. (1999). Eine Prozessstudie selbstregulierten Lernenverhaltens im Kontext aktueller affektiver und motivationaler Faktoren [A process study of self-regulated learning behavior in the context of motivational and emotional states]. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 31, 157-170.
106. Seijts, G. H., & Latham, G. P. (2005). Learning versus performance goals: When should each be used? Academy of Management Executive, 19, 124-131.
107. Staudinger, U. M., Marsiske, M., & Baltes, P. B. (1995). Resilience and reserve capacity in later adulthood: Potentials and limits of development across the life span. In D. Cicchetti & D. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (Vol. 2, pp. 801-847). New York: Wiley.
108. Stroebe, W., Mensink, W., Aarts, H., Schut, H., & Kruglanski, A. (2008). Why dieters fail: Testing the goal conflict model of eating. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 26-36.
109. Taylor, S. E., Pham, L. B., Rivkin, I. D., & Armor, D. A. (1998). Harnessing the imagination: Mental simulation, selfregulation, and coping. American Psychologist, 53, 429-439.
110. Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2003). Temporal construal. Psychological Review, 110, 403-421.
111. Vallacher, R. R., & Wegner, D. M. (1985). A theory of action identification. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
112. VandeWalle, D. (2001). Goal orientation: Why wanting to look successful doesn't always lead to success. Organizational Dynamics, 30, 162-171.
113. VandeWalle, D., Brown, S. P., Cron, W. L., & Slocum, J. W., Jr. (1999). The influence of goal orientation and selfregulation tactics on sales performance: A longitudinal field test. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 249-259.
114. Wiese, B. S., & Freund, A. M. (2001). Zum Einfluss persönlicher Prioritätensetzungen auf Masse der Stimuluspräferenz [The impact of personal priorities on stimulus preference]. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie, 48, 57-73.
115. Wiese, B. S., & Freund, A. M. (2005). Goal progress makes one happy, or does it? Longitudinal findings from the work domain. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78, 287-304.
116. Wiese, B. S., Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2000). Selection, optimization, and compensation: An action-related approach to work and partnership. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 57, 273-300.
117. Wiese, B. S., Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2001). Longitudinal predictions of selection, optimization, and compensation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 59, 1-15.
118. Woike, B., Lavezzary, E., & Barsky, J. (2001). The influence of implicit motives on memory processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 935-945.
119. Wyer, R. S., & Srull, T. K. (1986). Human cognition in its social context. Psychological Review, 93, 322-359.
120. Young, L. M., Baltes, B. B., & Pratt, A. K. (2007). Using selection, optimization, and compensation to reduce job/family stressors: Effective when it matters. Journal of Business and Psychology, 21, 511-539.
121. Ziegelmann, J. P., & Lippke, S. (2007). Use of selection, optimization, and compensation strategies in health selfregulation:Interplay with resources and successful development. Journal of Aging and Health, 19, 500-518.
122. Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid reliable individual-differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1271-1288.
123. Zimmerman, B. J., & Kitsantas, A. (1997). Developmental phases in self-regulation: Shifting from process to outcome goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 29-36.
124. Zimmerman, B. J., & Kitsantas, A. (1999). Acquiring writing revision skill: Shifting from process to outcome selfregulatory goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 241-250.