Goal Constructs in Psychology: Structure, Process, and Content

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 122, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 338-375

  Austin, James T ^a   Vancouver, Jeffrey B ^b  

^a OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 2242449787     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037//0033-2909.120.3.338     Document Type: Article

References (554)

1. Abelson, R. P. (1981). Psychological status of the script concept. American Psychologist, 36, 715-729.
2. Ach, N. (1905). Ueber die Willenstaetigkeit und das Denken (Willing and thinking). Gottingen, Germany: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht.
3. Adams, J. S. (1963). Toward an understanding of inequity. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 422-436.
4. Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Action control: From cognition to behavior (pp. 11-39). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
5. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179-211.
6. Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4, 142-175.
7. Allport, F. H. (1937). Teleonomic description in the study of personality. Character and Personality, 6, 202-214.
8. Allport, G. W. (1937). Personality. A psychological interpretation. New York: Holt.
9. Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261-271.
10. Ammons, R. B. (1956). Effects of knowledge of performance: A survey and tentative theoretical formulation. Journal of General Psychology, 54, 279-299.
11. Anderson, J. R. (1982). Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review, 86, 369-406.
12. Anderson, J. R. (1987). Skill acquisition: Compilation of weak-method problem solutions. Psychological Review, 92, 192-210.
13. Anderson, J. R. (1993). Problem solving and learning. American Psychologist, 48, 35-44.
14. Anokhin, P. K. (1969). Cybernetics and the integrative activity of the brain. In M. Cole & I. Maltzman (Eds.), Contemporary Soviet psychology (pp. 830-856). New York: Basic Books.
15. Apter, M. J. (1984). Reversal theory and personality: A review. Journal of Research in Personality, 18, 265-288.
16. Apter, M. J. (1989). Reversal theory: Motivation, emotion, and personality. London: Routledge.
17. Arabie, P., Carroll, J. D., & DeSarbo, W. (1987). Three-way scaling and clustering. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
18. Argyris, C., Putnam, R., & Smith, D. (1985). Action science. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
19. Arvey, R. D., & Dewhirst, H. D. (1976). Goal-setting attributes, personality variables, and job satisfaction. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 9, 179-189.
20. Ashby, W. R. (1960). Design for a brain. London: Chapman & Hall.
21. Ashford, S. J., & Cummings, L. L. (1983). Feedback as an individual resource: Personal strategies of creating information. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 32, 370-398.
22. Ashford, S. J., & Tsui, A. S. (1991). Self-regulation for managerial effectiveness: The role of active feedback seeking. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 251-280.
23. Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14, 20-30.
24. Astin, A. W., & Nichols, R. C. (1964). Life goals and vocational choice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 48, 50-58.
25. Atkinson, J. W. (1964). An introduction to motivation. New York: Van Nostrand-Reinhold.
26. Atkinson, J. W., & Birch, D. (1970). The dynamics of action. New York: Wiley.
27. Austin, J. T. (1989). Effects of shifts in goal origin on goal acceptance and attainment. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 46, 315-335.
28. Austin, J. T., & Bobko, P. (1985). Goal-setting theory: Unexplored areas and future research needs. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 58, 289-308.
29. Averill, J. R. (1973). Personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationship to stress. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 286-303.
30. Bailey, K. D. (1994). Typologies and taxonomies: An introduction to classification techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
31. Baltes, P., & Reese, H. (1984). The life-span perspective in developmental psychology. In M. H. Bornstein & M. E. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced textbook (pp. 493-531). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
32. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
33. Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37, 122-147.
34. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
35. Bandura, A. (1989). The concept of agency in social-cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44, 1175-1184.
36. Bandura, A. (1991a). Human agency: The rhetoric and the reality. American Psychologist, 46, 157-162.
37. Bandura, A. (1991b). Self-regulation of motivation through anticipatory and self-reactive mechanisms. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Perspectives on motivation (Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 38, pp. 69-164). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
38. Bandura, A. (1991c). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 248-287.
39. Bandura, A., & Cervone, D. (1983). Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 1017-1028.
40. Bandura, A., & Cervone, D. (1986). Differential engagement of self-reactive influences in cognitive motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 38, 92-113.
41. Bandura, A., & Jourden, F. (1991). Self-regulatory mechanisms governing social comparison effects on complex decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 941-951.
42. Bandura, A., & Wood, R. E. (1989). Effect of perceived controllability and performance standards on self-regulation of complex decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 805-814.
43. Bargh, J. A. (1989). Conditional automaticity: Varieties of automatic influence in social perception and cognition. In J. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 3-51). New York: Guilford.
44. Bargh, J. A. (1990). Auto-motives: Preconscious determinants of social interaction. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 2, pp. 93-130). New York: Guilford Press.
45. Bargh, J. A. (1994). The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention, efficiency, and control in social cognition. In R. S. Wyer & T. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 1-40). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
46. Bargh, J. A., & Barndollar, K. (1996). Automaticity in action: The unconscious as repository of chronic goals and motives. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action (pp. 457-481). New York: Guilford.
47. Bargh, J. A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1994). Environmental control of goal directed action: Automatic and strategic contingencies between situations and behaviors. In W. Spaulding (Ed.), Integrative views of motivation, cognition, and emotion (Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 41, pp. 71-124). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
48. Baron, R. M., & Boudreau, L. A. (1987). An ecological perspective on integrating personality and social psychology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1222-1228.
49. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
50. Barr, A., & Feigenbaum, E. A. (Eds.). (1981). The handbook of artificial intelligence (Vol. 1). Los Altos, CA: Kaufmann.
51. Barsalou, L. W. (1991). Deriving categories to achieve goals. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 27, pp. 1-64). New York: Academic Press.
52. Bavelas, J., & Lee, E. S. (1978). Effects of goal level on performance: A trade-off of quantity and quality. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 32, 219-240.
53. Bazerman, M. H., & Neale, M. A. (1983). Heuristics in negotiation: Limitations to dispute resolution effectiveness. In M. H. Bazerman & R. J. Lewicki (Eds.), Negotiating in organizations. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
54. Beach, L. R. (1985). Action: Decision-implementation strategies and tactics. In M. Frese & J. Sabini (Eds.), Goal directed behavior: The concept of action in psychology (pp. 123-131). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
55. Beach, L. R. (1990). Image theory: Decision making in personal and organizational contexts. New York: Wiley.
56. Beach, L. R., & Mitchell, T. R. (1990). Image theory: A behavioral theory of decisions in organizations. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 12, pp. 1-41). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
57. Beckmann, J. (1994). Ruminative thought and the deactivation of an intention. Motivation and Emotion, 18, 317-334.
58. Beckmann, J., & Gollwitzer, P. (1987). Deliberative versus implemental states of mind: The issue of impartiality in predecisional and post-decisional information processing. Social Cognition, 5, 259-279.
59. Biddle, B. J. (1964). Roles, goals, and value structures in organizations. In W. W. Cooper, H. J. Leavitt, & M. W. Shelly (Eds.), New perspectives in organization research (pp. 150-172). New York: Wiley.
60. Billings, R. S., & Cornelius, E. T., III. (1980). Dimensions of work outcomes: A multidimensional scaling approach. Personnel Psychology, 33, 151-162.
61. Bills, A. G., & Brown, C. (1929). The quantitative set. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 12, 301-323.
62. Bobko, P., & Russell, C. (1991). A review of the role of taxonomies in human resource management. Human Resource Management Review, 1, 293-316.
63. Boden, M. A. (1973). The structure of intentions. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 3, 23-46.
64. Boden, M. A. (1981). Intentions. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
65. Bogdan, R. J. (1994). Grounds for cognition: How goal-guided behavior shapes the mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
66. Borg, I., & Shye, S. (1995). Facet theory: Form and content. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
67. Bower, G. H. (1982). Plans and goals in understanding episodes. In A. Flammer & W. Kintsch (Eds.), Discourse processing (pp. 2-15). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
68. Bower, G. H., Black, J. B., & Turner, T. J. (1979). Scripts in memory for prose. Cognitive Psychology, 11, 177-220.
69. Brandtstadter, J. (1989). Personal self-regulation of development: Cross-sequential analyses of development-related control beliefs and emotions. Developmental Psychology, 25, 96-108.
70. Bratman, C. (1987). Intention, plans, and practical reason. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
71. Brehm, J. W., & Self, E. (1989). The intensity of motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 109-131.
72. Brehm, J. W., Wright, R. A., Solomon, S., Silka, L., & Greenberg, J. (1983). Perceived difficulty, energization, and the magnitude of goal valence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 21-48.
73. Brewer, W. F., & Dupree, D. A. (1983). Use of plan schemata in the recall and recognition of goal-directed actions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9, 117-129.
74. Broadbent, D. B. (1985). Multiple goals and flexible procedures in the design of work. In M. Frese & J. Sabini (Eds.), Goal directed behavior: The concept of action in psychology (pp. 285-294). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
75. Brody, N. (1983). Human motivation: Commentary on goal-directed action. New York: Academic.
76. Buhler, C., Brind, A., & Horner, A. (1968). Old age as a phase of human life. Human Development, 11, 53-63.
77. Buhler, C., & Massarik, F. (1968). The course of human life: A study of goals in the humanistic perspective. New York: Springer.
78. Bullock, M. (Ed.). (1991). The development of intentional action: Cognitive, motivational, and interactive processes. Basel, Switzerland: Karger.
79. Bullock, M., & Lutkenhaus, P. (1988). The development of volitional behavior in the toddler years. Child Development, 59, 664-674.
80. Burton, D. (1993). Goal-setting in sport. In R. N. Singer, M. Murphy, & L. K. Tennant (Eds.), Handbook of research on sport psychology (pp. 467-491). New York: Macmillan.
81. Buss, D. M., & Cantor, N. (Eds.). (1989). Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging emphases. New York: Springer-Verlag.
82. Button, S. M., Mathieu, J., & Zajac, D. (1996). Goal orientation in organizational research: A conceptual and empirical foundation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 67, 26-48.
83. Cacioppo, J. T., & Berntson, G. (1992). Social psychological contributions to the decade of the brain: Doctrine of multilevel analysis. American Psychologist, 47, 1019-1028.
84. Cacioppo, J. T., & Berntson, G. (1995). Social psychophysiology. In A. S. R. Manstead & M. Hewstone (Eds.), Blackwell encyclopedia of social psychology (pp. 595-599). Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
85. Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., & Tassinary, L. G. (1989). Social psychophysiology: A new look. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 22, pp. 39-87). New York: Academic Press.
86. Callanan, G. A., & Greenhaus, J. H. (1992). The career indecision of managers and professionals: An examination of multiple subtypes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 41, 212-231.
87. Campbell, D. T. (1960). Blind variation and selection retention in creative thought as in other knowledge processes. Psychological Review, 67, 380-400.
88. Campion, M. A., & Lord, R. G. (1982). A control systems conceptualization of the goal-setting and changing processes. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 30, 265-287.
89. Cannon, W. (1932). The wisdom of the body. New York: Norton.
90. Cantor, N. (1990). From thought to behavior: "Having" and "doing" in the study of personality and cognition. American Psychologist, 45, 735-750.
91. Cantor, N., & Fleeson, W. (1991). Life tasks and self-regulatory processes. In M. L. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in achievement and motivation (Vol. 7, pp. 327-369). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
92. Cantor, N., & Fleeson, W. (1994). Social intelligence and intelligent goal pursuit: A cognitive slice of motivation. In W. Spaulding (Ed.), Integrative views of motivation, cognition, and emotion (Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 41, pp. 125-179). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
93. Cantor, N., & Langston, C. A. (1989). Ups and downs of life tasks in a transition. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 127-167). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
94. Cantor, N., & Zirkel, S. (1990). Personality, cognition, and purposive behavior. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 135-164). New York: Guilford Press.
95. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, W. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control theory approach to human behavior. New York: Springer-Verlag.
96. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1982). Control theory: A useful conceptual framework for personality-social, clinical, and health psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 111-135.
97. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1990). Origins and functions of positive and negative affect: A control process view. Psychological Review. 97, 19-35.
98. Cervone, D., Jiwani, N., & Wood, R. (1991). Goal setting and the differential influence of self-regulatory processes on complex decision-making performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 257-266.
99. Chaiken, S. (1987). The heuristic model of persuasion. In M. P. Zanna, J. M. Olson, & C. P. Herman (Eds.), Social influence: The Ontario Symposium (Vol. 5, pp. 3-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
100. Chase, W. G. (1978). Elementary information processes. In W. K. Estes (Ed.), Handbook of learning and cognitive processes. Vol. 5: Human information processing (pp. 19-30). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
101. Chulef, A. (1993). Toward a hierarchical taxonomy of goals. Unpublished dissertation, University of Southern California, Department of Communications, Los Angeles.
102. Cofer, C. N. (1985). Drives and motives. In G. A. Kimble & K. Schlesinger (Eds.), Topics in the history of psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 151-189). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
103. Cofer, C. N., & Appley, M. H. (1964). Motivation: Theory and research. New York: Wiley.
104. Corno, L. (1986). The metacognitive control components of self-regulated learning. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 11, 333-346.
105. Corno, L. (1993). The best-laid plans: Modern conceptions of volition and educational research. Educational Researcher, 22, 14-22.
106. Corno, L., & Kanfer, R. (1993). The role of volition in learning and performance. Review of Research in Education, 19, 301-341.
107. Cosier, R. A., & Rose, G. L. (1977). Cognitive conflict and goal conflict effects on task performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 19, 378-391.
108. Cotton, J. L. (1993). Employee involvement: Methods for improving performance and work attitudes. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
109. Cox, D. R., & Wermuth, N. (1993). Linear dependencies represented by chain graphs (with discussion). Statistical Science, 8, 204-283.
110. Cronbach, L. J. (1957). The two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist, 12, 671-683.
111. Cropanzano, R. (Ed.). (1993). Justice in the workplace. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
112. Cropanzano, R., Citera, M., & Howe, J. (1993). A goal hierarchy approach to plan formulation. Unpublished manuscript. Colorado State University, Department of Psychology, Ft. Collins.
113. Cropanzano, R., James, K., & Citera, M. (1992). A goal hierarchy model of personality, motivation, and leadership. In L. L. Cummings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 15, pp. 267-322). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
114. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row.
115. Cyert, R. M., & MacCrimmon, K. R. (1968). Organizations. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 568-611). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
116. Damos, D. L. (Ed.). (1991). Multiple-task performance. London: Taylor & Francis.
117. de Charms, R. (1968). Personal causation: The internal affective determinants of behavior. New York: Academic Press.
118. Deci, E. L. (1980). The psychology of self-determination. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
119. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1980). Self-determination theory: When mind mediates behavior. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 1, 33-43.
120. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.
121. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. In R. A. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 1990. Vol. 38: Perspectives on motivation (pp. 237-288). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
122. de Latil, P. (1957). Thinking by machine: A study of cybernetics. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
123. Derryberry, D., & Tucker, D. R. (1991). The adaptive base of the neural hierarchy: Elementary motivational controls on network function. In R. A. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 1990. Vol. 38: Perspectives on motivation (pp. 289-342). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
124. Deutsch, K. W. (1968). Toward a cybernetic model of man and society. In W. Buckley (Ed.), Modern systems research for the behavioral scientist (pp. 387-400). Chicago: Aldine.
125. De Volder, M., & Lens, W. (1982). Academic achievement and future time perspective as a cognitive-motivational concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 566-571.
126. Diddams, M. (1994). Revisiting the "person" in person-environment fit: An investigation of self-concept and organizational goal congruence. Unpublished dissertation. New York University, Department of Psychology, New York.
127. Diefendorff, J. M., Lord, R. G., Quickie, J., Sanders, R. E., & Hepburn, E. T. (1995, May). Goal-related inhibition: Application of a negative priming paradigm. Paper presented at the 10th annual meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Orlando, FL.
128. Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542-575.
129. Duda, J., & Nicholls, J. (1992). Dimensions of achievement motivation in schoolwork and sport. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 290-299.
130. Dulany, D. E. (1968). Awareness, rules, and propositional control: A confrontation with S-R behavior theory. In D. Horton & T. Dixon (Eds.), Verbal behavior and general behavior theory (pp. 340-387). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
131. Dulany, D. E. (1991). Conscious representation and thought systems. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 4, pp. 97-120). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
132. Dunkel, H. B. (1944). An inventory of students' general goals in life. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 4, 87-95.
133. Dweck, C. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41, 1040-1048.
134. Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256-273.
135. Dyer, M. G. (1983). In-depth understanding: A model of integrated processing for narrative comprehension. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
136. Earley, P. C., & Shalley, C. E. (1991). New perspectives on goals and performance: Merging motivation and cognition. In G. Ferris & K. Rowland (Eds.), Research in personnel and human resources management (Vol. 9, pp. 121-157). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
137. Earley, P. C., Shalley, C. E., & Northcraft, G. B. (1992). I think I can, I think I can . . . Processing time and strategy effects of goal acceptance/rejection decisions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 53, 1-13.
138. Earley, P. C., Wojnaroski, P., & Prest, W. (1987). Task planning and energy expended: Exploration of how goals influence performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 107-114.
139. Eckblad, G. (1981). Scheme theory. New York: Academic Press.
140. Edwards, J. R. (1991). Person-job fit: A conceptual integration, literature review, and methodological critique. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology 1991 (Vol. 6, pp. 283-357). Chichester, England: Wiley.
141. Elliott, E. S., & Dweck, C. (1988). Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 5-12.
142. Emmons, R. A. (1986). Personal strivings: An approach to personality and subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1058-1068.
143. Emmons, R. A. (1989). The personal striving approach to personality. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 87-126). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
144. Emmons, R. A., & Diener, E. (1986). A goal-affect analysis of everyday situational choices. Journal of Research in Personality, 20, 309-326.
145. Emmons, R. A., & King, L. A. (1988). Conflict among personal strivings: Immediate and long-term implications for psychological and physical well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1040-1048.
146. Emmons, R. A., & King, L. A. (1989). Personal striving differentiation and affective reactivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 478-484.
147. Emmons, R. A., King, L. A., & Sheldon, K. (1993). Goal conflict and the self-regulation of action. In D. M. Wegner & J. M. Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 528-550). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
148. Epstein, S. (1994). Integration of the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious. American Psychologist, 49, 709-724.
149. Erez, M., & Earley, P. C. (1987). Comparative analysis of goal-setting strategies across cultures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 658-665.
150. Erez, M., & Kanfer, F. H. (1983). The role of goal acceptance in goal-setting and task performance. Academy of Management Review, 8, 454-463.
151. Escalona, S. K. (1940). The effect of success and failure upon the level of aspiration and behavior in manic-depressive psychoses. University of Iowa Studies in Child Welfare, 16, 199-302.
152. Eysenck, H., & Eysenck, M. W. (1985). Personality and individual differences: A natural science approach. New York: Plenum Press.
153. Farr, J. L., Hofmann, D. A., & Ringenbach, K. L. (1993). Goal orientation and action control theory: Implications for industrial and organizational psychology. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology 1993 (Vol. 8, pp. 193-233). Chichester, England: Wiley.
154. Festinger, L. (1942). A theoretical interpretation of shifts in level of aspiration. Psychological Review, 49, 235-250.
155. Fishbein, M. (1967). A behavior theory approach to the relation between beliefs about an object and the attitude toward the object. In M. Fishbein (Ed.), Readings in attitude theory and measurement (pp. 389-400). New York: Wiley.
156. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
157. Fiske, D. W. (1995). Reprise, new themes, and steps forward. In P. E. Shrout & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), Personality research, methods, and theory (pp. 351-361). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
158. Fiske, S. T. (1993). Social cognition and social perception. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 155-194.
159. Fodor, J. (1983). The modularity of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
160. Ford, D. H. (1987). Humans as self-constructing systems: A developmental perspective on personality and behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
161. Ford, M. E. (1992). Motivating humans: Goals, emotions, and personal agency beliefs. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
162. Ford, M. E., & Ford, D. H. (Eds.) .(1987). Humans as self-constructing systems: Putting the framework to work. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
163. Ford, M. E., & Nichols, C. W. (1987). A taxonomy of human goals and some possible applications. In M. E. Ford & D. H. Ford (Eds.), Humans as self-constructing systems: Putting the framework to work (pp. 289-311). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
164. Ford, M. E., & Nichols, C. W. (1991). Using goal assessments to identify motivational patterns and facilitate self-regulation. In M. L. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in achievement and motivation (Vol. 7, pp. 51-84). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
165. Ford, M. E., & Nichols, C. W. (1992). Manual: Assessment of personal goals. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
166. Foss, C. L., & Bower, G. H. (1986). Understanding actions in relation to goals. In N. E. Sharkey (Ed.), Advances in cognitive science 1 (pp. 94-124). Chichester, England: Horwood.
167. Franklin, N., & Bower, G. H. (1988). Retrieving actions from goal hierarchies. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 26, 15-18.
168. Frese, M., & Sabini, J. (Eds.). (1985). Goal directed behavior: The concept of action in psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
169. Frese, M., Stewart, M., & Hannover, B. (1987). Goal orientation and planfulness: Action styles as personality concepts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1182-1194.
170. Frese, M., & Zapf, D. (1994). Action as the core of work psychology: A German approach. In H. C. Triandis, M. D. Dunnette, & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 4, pp. 271-340). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
171. Freud, S. (1948). Beyond the pleasure principle. London: Hogarth. (Original work published 1920)
172. Frijda, N. (1986). The emotions. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
173. Frijda, N. (1987). Emotion, cognitive structure, and action tendency. Cognition and Emotion, 1, 115-143.
174. Frijda, N. (1988). The laws of emotion. American Psychologist, 43, 349-358.
175. Galambos, J., Abelson, R. P., & Black, J. (Eds.). (1986). Knowledge structures. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
176. Gallistel, C. R. (1981). Precis of Gallistel's Organization of action: The new synthesis (with commentary). Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 609-650.
177. Gallistel, C. R. (1985). Motivation, intention, and emotion: Goal-directed behavior from a cognitive-neuroethological point of view. In M. Frese & M. Sabini (Eds.), Goal directed behavior: The concept of action in psychology (pp. 48-66). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
178. Gallistel, C. R. (1994). Elementary and complex units of behaviour. In G. d'Ydewalle, P. Eelen, & P. Bertelson (Eds.), International perspectives on psychological science (Vol. 2, pp. 157-175). Howe, England: Erlbaum.
179. Gardner, D. G., & Cummings, L. L. (1988). Activation theory and job design: A review. In B. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 10, pp. 81-122). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
180. Gardner, H. (1987). The mind's new science. New York: Basic Books.
181. Gardner, H. (1994). The stories of the right hemisphere. In W. D. Spaulding (Ed.), Integrative views of motivation, cognition, and emotion (Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 41, pp. 57-69). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
182. Georgeff, M. P. (1987). Planning. Annual Review of Computer Science, 2, 359-400.
183. Gernsbacher, M. A., & Faust, M. E. (1991). The mechanism of suppression: A component of general comprehension skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 17, 245-262.
184. Gibson, J. J. (1941). A critical review of the concept of set in contemporary experimental psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 38, 781-817.
185. Gioia, D. A., & Poole, P. P. (1984). Scripts in organizational behavior. Academy of Management Review, 9, 449-459.
186. Gist, M. E. (1987). Self-efficacy: Implications for organizational behavior and human resource management. Academy of Management Review, 12, 472-485.
187. Gist, M. E., & Mitchell, T. R. (1992). Self-efficacy: A theoretical analysis of its determinants and malleability. Academy of Management Review, 17, 183-211.
188. Gjesme, T. (1981). Is there any future in achievement motivation? Motivation and Emotion, 5, 115-138.
189. Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. London: Allen Lane-Penguin Press.
190. Gollwitzer, P. M. (1990). Action phases and mind-sets. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 2, pp. 53-92). New York: Guilford Press.
191. Gollwitzer, P. M. (1993). Goal achievement: The role of intentions. In M. Hewstone & W. Stroebe (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 141-185). Chichester, England: Wiley.
192. Gollwitzer, P., & Bargh, J. (Eds.). (1996). The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior. New York: Guilford Press.
193. Gollwitzer, P. M., Heckhausen, H., & Ratajczak, H. (1989). From weighing to willing: Approaching a change decision through pre- or post-decision mentation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 45, 41-65.
194. Gollwitzer, P. M., & Kinney, R. F. (1989). Effects of deliberative and implemental mindsets on illusion of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 531-542.
195. Graesser, A. C., & Clark, L. F. (1985). Structures and procedures of implicit knowledge. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
196. Graesser, A. C., Gordon, S. E., & Sawyer, J. D. (1979). Recognition memory for typical and atypical events in scripted activities: Tests of a script pointer plus tag hypothesis. Journal of Verbal Learning and Behavior, 18, 319-332.
197. Gray, J. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
198. Greenberger, D. B., & Strasser, S. (1986). The development and application of a model of personal control in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 11, 164-177.
199. Gulliksen, H., & Gulliksen, D. P. (1972). Attitudes of different groups toward work, aims, goals, and activities. Multivariate Behavioral Research Monographs, 3, 1-95.
200. Guthrie, E. R. (1935). The psychology of learning. New York: Harper & Row.
201. Guttman, L. (1968). A general nonmetric technique for finding the smallest coordinate system for a set of points. Psychometrika, 33, 469-506.
202. Hacker, W. (1982). Objective and subjective organization of work activities. In M. von Cranach & R. Harre (Eds.), The analysis of action: Recent theoretical and empirical findings (pp. 81-97). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
203. Hacker, W. (1985a). Activity: A fruitful concept in industrial psychology. In M. Frese & J. Sabini (Eds.), Goal directed behavior (pp. 262-283). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
204. Hacker, W. (1985b). Self-set goals in action control: Prerequisites and effects. In J. T. Spence & C. E. Izard (Eds.), Motivation, emotion, and personality (pp. 87-102). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
205. Hacker, W. (1993). Action regulation theory and occupational psychology. Review of German empirical research since 1987. German Journal of Psychology, 18, 91-120.
206. Hacker, W., Volpert, W., & von Cranach, M. (Eds.). (1982). Cognitive and motivational aspects of goal-directed action. New York: Elsevier and North-Holland.
207. Hacker, W., & von Cranach, M. (1982). Cognitive and motivational aspects of action. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
208. Hackman, J. R. (1969). Toward understanding the role of tasks in behavioral research. Acta Psychologica, 31, 97-128.
209. Haith, M. (Ed.). (1994). Future-oriented processes. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
210. Halisch, F., & Heckhausen, H. (1977). Search for feedback information and effort regulation during task performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 724-733.
211. Halisch, F. & Kuhl, J. (Eds.). (1987). Motivation, intention, and volition. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
212. Hart, S. G. (1986). Theory and measurement of human workload. In J. Zeidner (Ed.), Human productivity enhancement (pp. 396-455). New York: Praeger.
213. Harter, S. (1990). Causes, correlates, and the functional role of global self-worth: A life-span perspective. In R. J. Sternberg & J. Kolligian, Jr. (Eds.), Competence considered (pp. 67-97). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
214. Hattie, J. (1991). Self-concept. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
215. Hebb, D. O. (1955). Drives and the CNS (conceptual nervous system). Psychological Review, 62, 243-254.
216. Heckhausen, H. (1977). Achievement motivation and its constructs: A cognitive model. Motivation and Emotion, 1, 283-329.
217. Heckhausen, H. (1984). Emergent achievement behavior: Some early developments. In J. Nicholls (Ed.), Advances in motivation and achievement: The development of achievement motivation (Vol. 1, pp. 1-32). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
218. Heckhausen, H. (1991). Motivation and action (P. Leppmann, Trans.). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
219. Heckhausen, H., & Beckmann, J. (1990). Intentional action and action slips. Psychological Review, 97, 36-48.
220. Heckhausen, H., Schmalt, H. D., & Schneider, K. (1985). Achievement motivation in perspective. New York: Academic Press.
221. Hepburn, E. T., Lord, R. G., Diefendorff, J. M., Quickie, J. S., Hall, R. J., & Sanders, R. E. (1994). Goal attainment and individual differences in selective attention. Unpublished manuscript. University of Akron, Department of Psychology, OH.
222. Hershberger, W. A. (Ed.). (1989). Volitional action: Conation and control. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
223. Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy theory: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94, 319-340.
224. Higgins, E. T. (1989). Self-discrepancy theory: What patterns of self-beliefs cause people to suffer? In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 22, pp. 93-136). New York: Academic Press.
225. Hoc, J.-M. (1989). Cognitive psychology of planning. New York: Academic Press.
226. Hollenbeck, J. R. (1989). Control theory and the perception of work environments: The effects of focus of attention on affective and behavioral reactions to work. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 43, 406-430.
227. Hollenbeck, J., & Brief, A. P. (1987). The effects of individual differences and goal origin on goal-setting and performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 40, 392-414.
228. Hollenbeck, J. R., & Klein, H. J. (1987). Goal commitment and the goal-setting process: Problems, prospects, and proposals for future research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 212-220.
229. Hollenbeck, J. R., Klein, H. J., O'Leary, A. M., & Wright, P. M. (1989). Investigation of the construct validity of a self-report measure of goal commitment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 951-956.
230. Hollenbeck, J. R., & Williams, C. R. (1987). Goal importance, self-focus, and the goal-setting process. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 204-211.
231. Holyoak, K. J. (1990). Problem solving. In D. N. Osherson & E. E. Smith (Eds.), An invitation to cognitive science: Thinking (Vol. 3, pp. 117-146). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
232. Hoppe, F. (1930). Erfolg und Misserfolg [Success and failure]. Psychologische Forschung, 14, 1-62.
233. Hothersall, D. (1995). History of psychology (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
234. Hough, L. M., & Schneider, R. J. (1996). Personality traits, taxonomies, and applications to behavior in organizations. In K. R. Murphy (Ed.), Individual differences and behavior in organizations (pp. 31-88). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
235. Hovland, C. I. (1960). Computer simulation of thinking. American Psychologist, 15, 687-693.
236. Huber, V. L. (1985). Effects of task difficulty, goal setting, and strategy on performance of a heuristic task. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 492-504.
237. Humphrey, G. (1951). Thinking. London: Methuen.
238. Hyland, M. E. (1987). Control theory interpretation of psychological mechanisms of depression: Comparison and integration of several theories. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 109-121.
239. Hyland, M. E. (1988). Motivational control theory: An integrative framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 642-651.
240. Ilgen, D. R., Fisher, C. D., & Taylor, M. S. (1979). Consequences of individual feedback on behavior in organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 349-371.
241. Ivancevich, J., & McMahon, J. T. (1977). A study of task-goal attributes, higher order need strength, and performance. Academy of Management Journal, 20, 552-563.
242. Izard, C. (1993). Four systems for emotional activation: Cognitive and noncognitive processes. Psychological Review, 100, 68-90.
243. Jackson, S. E. (1981). Measurement of commitment to role identities. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 138-146.
244. Jacoby, L. L., Lindsay, D. S., & Toth, J. P. (1992). Unconscious influences revealed: Attention, awareness, and control. American Psychologist, 47, 802-809.
245. James, W. (1980). Principles of psychology (Vols. 1 & 2). New York: Holt.
246. Jehn, K. A. (1993, August). The impact of intragroup conflict on effectiveness. Paper presented at the 53rd annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Atlanta, GA.
247. John, E. R. (1980). A neurophysiological model of purposive behavior. In R. F. Thompson, L. H. Hicks, & V. B. Shvyrkov (Eds.), Neural mechanisms of goal-directed behavior and learning (pp. 93-115). New York: Academic Press.
248. John, O. (1990). The "big five" factor taxonomy: Dimensions of personality in the natural language and questionnaires. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 66-100). New York: Guilford Press.
249. Kabanoff, B. (1980). Work and nonwork: A review of models, methods, and findings. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 60-77.
250. Kanfer, F. H. (1987). Self-regulation and behavior. In H. Heckhausen, P. M. Gollwitzer, & F. E. Weinert (Eds.). Jenseits der Rubikon: Der wille in den humaniscenschaften [Crossing the Rubicon: The will in humanistic science] (pp. 286-299). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
251. Kanfer, F. H., & Hagerman, S. (1987). A model of self-regulation. In F. Halisch & J. Kuhl (Eds.), Motivation, intention, and volition (pp. 293-307). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
252. Kanfer, R. (1990). Motivation theory in industrial and organizational psychology. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 75-170). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
253. Kanfer, R. (1992). Work motivation: New directions in theory and research. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology 1992 (Vol. 7, pp. 1-53). Chichester, England: Wiley.
254. Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (1989). Motivation and cognitive abilities: An integrative/aptitude-treatment interaction approach to skill acquisition [Monograph]. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 657-690.
255. Kanfer, R., Ackerman, P. L., & Cudeck, R. (Eds.). (1989). Abilities, motivation, and methodology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
256. Kanfer, R., & Kanfer, F. H. (1991). Goals and self-regulation: Applications of theory to work settings. In M. L. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in achievement and motivation (Vol. 7, pp. 287-326). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
257. Karoly, P. (1993). Mechanisms of self-regulation: A systems view. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 23-52.
258. Katz, D., & Kahn, R. (1978). Social psychology of organizations (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.
259. Kelman, H. C. (1961). Processes of opinion change. Public Opinion Quarterly, 25, 57-78.
260. Kernan, M. C., & Lord, R. G. (1990). The effect of valence in single and multiple goal environments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 194-202.
261. Kiesler, C. (1971). The psychology of commitment. New York: Academic Press.
262. Kihlstrom, J. F. (1987, September 18). The cognitive unconscious. Science, 237, 1445-1552.
263. Kimble, G. A. (1994). A frame of reference for psychology. American Psychologist, 49, 510-519.
264. King, G. A., & Sorrentino, R. M. (1983). Psychological dimensions of goal-oriented interpersonal situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 140-162.
265. Klein, H. J. (1989). An integrated control theory model of work motivation. Academy of Management Review, 14, 150-172.
266. Klein, H. J. (1991a). Control theory and understanding motivated behavior: A different conclusion. Motivation and Emotion, 15, 29-44.
267. Klein, H. J. (1991b). Further evidence on the relationship between goal setting and expectancy theories. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 49, 230-257.
268. Klein, H. J., Whitener, E., & Ilgen, D. R. (1990). The role of goal specificity in the goal-setting process. Motivation and Emotion, 14, 179-193.
269. Kleinbeck, U., Quast, H.-H., & Schwarz, R. (1989). Volitional effects on performance: Conceptual considerations and results from dualtask studies. In R. Kanfer, P. L. Ackerman, & R. Cudeck (Eds.), Abilities, motivation, and methodology (pp. 23-42). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
270. Klinger, E. (1975). Consequences of commitment to and disengagement from incentives. Psychological Review, 82, 1-25.
271. Klinger, E. (1977). Meaning and void: Inner experience and the incentives in people's lives. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
272. Klinger, E. (1987a). Current concerns and disengagement from incentives. In F. Halisch & J. Kuhl (Eds.). Motivation, intention, and volition (pp. 337-347). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
273. Klinger, E. (1987b). The interview questionnaire technique: Reliability and validity of a mixed idiographic-nomothetic measure of motivation. In J. N. Butcher & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Advances in personality assessment (Vol. 6, pp. 31-48). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
274. Klinger, E. (1995). Effects of motivation and emotion on thought flow and cognition: Assessment and findings. In P. E. Shrout & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), Personality research, methods, and theory (pp. 257-270). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
275. Klinger, E., Barta, S. G., & Maxeiner, M. E. (1981). Current concerns: Assessing therapeutically relevant motivation. In P. C. Kendall & S. D. Hollon (Eds.), Assessment strategies for cognitive-behavioral interventions (pp. 161-195). New York: Academic Press.
276. Kluckhohn, C., Murray, H. A., & Schneider, D. M. (Eds.). (1953). Personality in nature, society, and culture (2nd ed.). New York: Knopf.
277. Koestner, R., & McClelland, D. C. (1990). Perspectives on competence motivation. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 527-548). New York: Guilford Press.
278. Kozulin, A. (1986). The concept of activity in Soviet psychology: Vygotsky, his disciples, and critics. American Psychologist, 41, 264-274.
279. Krau, E. (1982). Motivational feedback loops in the structure of action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 1030-1040.
280. Kreppner, K. (1992). William L. Stern, 1871-1938: A neglected founder of developmental psychology. Developmental Psvchology, 28, 539-547.
281. Kruglanski, A. (1989). Lay epistemics and human knowledge: Cognitive and motivational bases. New York: Plenum.
282. Kuhl, J. (1981). Motivational and functional helplessness: The moderating effect of state versus action orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 155-170.
283. Kuhl, J. (1982). Action- vs. state-orientation as a mediator between motivation and action. In W. Hacker, W. Volpert, & M. von Cranach (Eds.), Cognitive and motivational aspects of action (pp. 67-85). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
284. Kuhl, J. (1992). A theory of self-regulation: Action versus state orientation, self-discrimination, and some applications. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 41, 97-129.
285. Kuhl, J. (1994). Motivation and volition. In G. d'Ydewalle, P. Eelen, & P. Bertelson (Eds.), International perspectives on psychological science (Vol. 2, pp. 311-340). Howe, England: Erlbaum.
286. Kuhl, J., & Atkinson, J. W. (1984). Perspectives in human experimental psychology: A new experimental paradigm. In V. Sarris & A. Parducci (Eds.), Perspectives in psychological experimentation: Toward the Year 2000 (pp. 235-252). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
287. Kuhl, J., & Beckmann, J. (Eds.). (1985a). Action control. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
288. Kuhl, J., & Beckmann, J. (1985b). Historical perspective in the study of action control. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Action control (pp. 89-100). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
289. Kuhl, J., & Beckmann, J. (Eds.). (1994). Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation. Gottingen, Germany: Hogrefe.
290. Kuhl, J., & Goschke, T. (1994). A theory of action control: Mental subsystems, modes of control, and volitional conflict resolution strategies. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation (pp. 93-124). Gottingen, Germany: Hogrefe.
291. Kuhl, J., & Helle, P. (1986). Motivational determinants of depression: The degenerated intention hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 247-251.
292. Kuncel, R. B., & Kuncel, N. R. (1995). Response process models: Toward an integration of cognitive-processing models, psychometric models, latent-trait theory, and self-schemas. In P. E. Shrout & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), Personality research, methods, and theory (pp. 183-200). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
293. Landman, J., & Manis, M. (1983). Social cognition: Some historical and theoretical perspectives. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 16, pp. 49-123). New York: Academic Press.
294. Landy, F. J. (1978). An opponent process theory of job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 533-547.
295. LaPorte, R. E., & Nath, R. (1976). Role of performance goals in prose learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 260-264.
296. Larsen, R. J. (1989). A process approach to personality psychology: Utilizing time as a facet of data. In A. R. Buss & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (pp. 177-193). New York: Springer-Verlag.
297. Latham, G. P., Erez, M., & Locke, E. A. (1988). Resolving scientific disputes by the joint design of crucial experiments by the antagonists [Monograph]. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 753-772.
298. Latham, G. P., & Locke, E. A. (1991). Self-regulation through goal setting. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 212-247.
299. Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adapt at ion. New York: Oxford University Press.
300. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
301. Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (1990). Impression management: A literature review and two-component model. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 34-47.
302. Lee, C., Bobko, P., Earley, P. C., & Locke, E. A. (1991). An empirical analysis of a goal setting questionnaire. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 12, 467-482.
303. Lens, W. (1986). Future time perspective: A cognitive-motivational concept. In D. R. Brown & J. Veroff (Eds.), Frontiers of motivational psychology (pp. 173-190). New York: Springer.
304. Levine, R. L., & Fitzgerald, H. E. (1992). Analysis of dynamic psychological systems (Vols. 1 & 2). New York: Plenum.
305. Levy, P. E., & Lord, R. G. (1992). Self-regulation: Bridging the gap between cognitive and motivational theories. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 41, 139-144.
306. Lewin, K. (1936). Psychology of success and failure. Occupations, 13, 926-930.
307. Lewin, K. (1943). Defining the field at a given time. Psychological Review, 50, 292-310.
308. Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues, 2, 34-46.
309. Lewin, K. (1951). Intention, will, and need. In D. Rapaport (Ed.), Organization and pathology of thought (pp. 93-153). New York: Columbia University Press. (Original work published 1926)
310. Lewin, K., Dembo, T., Festinger, L., & Sears, P. S. (1944). Level of aspiration. In J. M. Hunt (Ed.), Personality and the behavior disorders (Vol. 1, pp. 333-378). New York: Ronald Press.
311. Lewis, M. (1990). The development of intentionality and the role of consciousness. Psychological Inquiry, 1, 231-247.
312. Lezak, M. D. (1994). Domains of behavior from a neuropsychological perspective: The whole story. In W. D. Spaulding (Ed.), Integrative views of motivation, cognition, and emotion (Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 41, pp. 23-56). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
313. Lichtenstein, E. H., & Brewer, W. F. (1980). Memory for goal-directed events. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 412-445.
314. Linville, P. W., & Clark, L. F. (1989). Production systems and social problem solving. In R. S. Wyer & T. Srull (Eds.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 2, pp. 131-152). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
315. Little, B. R. (1983). Personal projects: A rationale and method for investigation. Environment and Behavior, 15, 273-309.
316. Little, B. R. (1989). Personal projects analysis: Trivial pursuits, magnificent obsessions, and the search for coherence. In A. R. Buss & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (pp. 15-31). New York: Springer-Verlag.
317. Little, B. R., Lecci, L., & Watkinson, B. (1992). Personality and personal projects: Linking big five and PAC units of analysis. Journal of Personality, 60, 501-525.
318. Locke, E. A. (1968). Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 3, 157-189.
319. Locke, E. A. (1991a). Goal theory vs. control theory: Contrasting approaches to understanding work motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 15, 9-28.
320. Locke, E. A. (1991b). Introduction. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes [Special issue], 50, 151-153.
321. Locke, E. A., Chah, D.-O., Harrison, S., & Lustgarten, N. (1989). Separating the effects of goal specificity from goal level. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 43, 270-287.
322. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990a). A theory of goal-setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
323. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990b). Work motivation and satisfaction: Light at the end of the tunnel. Psychological Science, 1, 240-246.
324. Locke, E. A., Latham, G. P., & Erez, M. (1988). The determinants of goal commitment. Academy of Management Review, 13, 23-39.
325. Locke, E. A., Motowidlo, S. J., & Bobko, P (1986). Using self-efficacy theory to resolve the conflict between goal-setting theory and expectancy theory in organizational behavior and industrial/organizational psychology. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4, 328-338.
326. Locke, E. A., Shaw, K. N., Saari, L. M., & Latham, G. P. (1981). Goal-setting and task performance: 1969-1980. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 125-152.
327. Locke, E. A., Smith, K. G., Erez, M., Chah, D.-O., & Schaffer, A. (1994). The effects of intra-individual goal conflict on performance. Journal of Management, 20, 67-91.
328. Logan, G. D. (1985). Executive control of thought and action. Acta Psychologica, 60, 193-210.
329. Logan, G. (1989). Automaticity and cognitive control. In J. S. Uleman & J. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 52-74). New York: Guilford Press.
330. Lord, R. G., & Hanges, P. J. (1987). A control system model of organizational motivation: Theoretical development and applied implications. Behavioral Science, 32, 161-178.
331. Lord, R. G., & Kernan, M. C. (1987). Scripts as determinants of purposeful behavior in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 12, 265-277.
332. Lord, R. G., & Levy, P. E. (1994). Moving from cognition to action: A control theory perspective. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 43, 335-398.
333. Lord, R. G., & Maher, K. J. (1991). Cognitive theory in industrial and organizational psychology. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 1-62). Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.
334. MacCallum, R. (1988). Multidimensional scaling. In J. R. Nesselroade & R. B. Cattell (Eds.), Handbook of multivariate experimental psychology (2nd ed., pp. 421-445). New York: Plenum.
335. Mace, C. A. (1931). The influence of indirect incentives upon the accuracy of skilled movements. British Journal of Psychology, 22, 101-114.
336. Mace, C. A. (1935), Incentives: Some experimental studies (Report No. 72). London: Industrial Health Research Board.
337. Mackie, D., & Goethals, G. (1987). Individual and group goals. In C. Hendrick (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology. Vol. 8: Group processes (pp. 144-166). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
338. Madden, T. J., Ellen, P. S., & Ajzen, I. (1992). A comparison of the theory of planned behavior and the theory of reasoned action. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 3-9.
339. Mane, A., & Donchin, E. (1989). The space fortress game. Acta Psychologica, 71, 17-22.
340. March, J. R., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Organizations (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.
341. Marken, R. (1988). The nature of behavior: Control as fact and theory. Behavioral Science, 33, 196-206.
342. Marken, R. (1991). Degrees of freedom in behavior. Psychological Science, 2, 92-100.
343. Markoczy, L., & Goldberg, J. (1995). A method for eliciting and comparing causal maps. Journal of Management, 21, 305-333.
344. Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 46, 954-969.
345. Markus, H., & Ruvolo, A. (1989). Possible selves: Personalized representations of goals. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 211-241). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
346. Markus, H., & Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: A social-psychological view. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 299-337.
347. Marteniuk, R. G. (1992). Issues in goal-directed motor learning: Feed-forward control, motor equivalence, and artificial neural networks. In G. Stelmach & J. Requin (Eds.), Tutorials in motor behavior II (pp. 101-124). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
348. Martin, L. L., & Tesser, A. (1989). Toward a motivational and structural theory of ruminative thought. In J. S. Uleman & J. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 306-326). New York: Guilford Press.
349. Martin, L. L., Tesser, A., & MacIntosh, W. D. (1993). Wanting but not having: The effects of unattained goals on thoughts and feelings. In D. M. Wegner & J. M. Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 552-572). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
350. Maslow, A. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396.
351. Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row.
352. Matarazzo, R., & Garner, A. M. (1985). Approaches to personality theory. In G. A. Kimble & K. Schlesinger (Eds.), Topics in the history of psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 331-369). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
353. Matsui, T., Okada, A., & Kakuyama, T. (1982). Influence of achievement need on goal setting, performance, and feedback effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 645-648.
354. McAdams, D. P. (1985). Power, intimacy, and the life story: Personological inquiries into identity. Chicago: Dorsey Press.
355. McAdams, D. P. (1988). Biography, narrative, and lives: An introduction. Journal of Personality, 56, 1-18.
356. McClelland, D. C. (1965). Toward a theory of motive acquisition. American Psychologist, 20, 321-333.
357. McClelland, D. C. (1987). Human motivation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
358. McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. A., & Lowell, E. L. (1953). The achievement motive. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
359. McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychological Review, 96, 690-702.
360. McClelland, K. (1994). Perceptual control and social power. Sociological Perspectives, 37, 461-496.
361. McDougall, W. (1923). Outline of psychology. New York: Scribner.
362. McCrae, R. R. (Ed.). (1992). The five-factor model: Issues and applications. Journal of Personality [Special issue], 60, 175-532.
363. Mento, A., Steel, R. P., & Karren, R. J. (1987). A meta-analytic study of the effects of goal-setting on task performance: 1966-1984. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 39, 52-83.
364. Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H. (1960). Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: Holt.
365. Miller, I. W., & Haller, A. O. (1964). A measure of level of occupational aspiration. Personnel Guidance Journal, 42, 448-455.
366. Miller, J. G. (1978). Living systems. New York: McGraw-Hill.
367. Minsky, M. (1986). The society of mind. New York: Touchstone.
368. Mitchell, T. R. (1974). Expectancy models of job satisfaction, occupational preference, and effort: A theoretical, methodological, and empirical appraisal. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 1053-1077.
369. Mook, D. G. (1996). Motivation: The organization of action (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.
370. Morrison, F. (1991). The art of modeling dynamic systems. New York: Wiley.
371. Morwitz, V. G., Johnson, E., & Schmittlein, D. (1993). Does measuring intent change behavior? Journal of Consumer Research, 20, 46-56.
372. Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press.
373. Naylor, J. C., & Ilgen, D. I. (1984). Goal-setting: A theoretical analysis of a motivational technology. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 6, pp. 95-140). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
374. Naylor, J. C., Pritchard, R. D., & Ilgen, D. R. (1980). A theory of behavior in organizations. New York: Academic Press.
375. Nelson, K. (1993). The psychological and social origins of autobiographical memory. Psychological Science, 4, 7-14.
376. Nelson, R. E., & Mathews, K. M. (1991). Cause maps and social network analysis in organizational diagnosis. Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences, 27, 379-397.
377. Nelson, T. D. (1993). The hierarchical organization of behavior: A useful feedback model of self-regulation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 121-126.
378. Nesselroade, J., & Ford, D. H. (1987). Methodological considerations for modeling living systems. In M. E. Ford & D. H. Ford (Eds.), Humans as self-constructing systems: Putting the system to work (pp. 47-79). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
379. Neumann, O., & Prinz, W. (1990). Prologue: Historical approaches to perception and action. In O. Neumann & W. Prinz (Eds.), Relationships between perception and action (pp. 5-19). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
380. Newell, A. (1990). Unified theories of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
381. Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
382. Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91, 328-346.
383. Norman, D. A. (1981). Categorization of action slips. Psychological Review, 88, 1-15.
384. Norman, W. T. (1963). Toward an adequate taxonomy of personality attributes: Replicated factor structure in peer nomination personality ratings. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 574-583.
385. Nuttin, J. (1964). The future time perspective in human motivation and learning. Acta Psychologia, 23, 60-82.
386. Nuttin, J. (1984). Motivation, planning, and action: A relational theory of behavior dynamics. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
387. Nuttin, J. (with Lens, W.). (1985). Future time perspective and motivation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
388. Ortony, A., Clore, G., & Collins, A. (1988). The cognitive structure of emotions. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
389. Palys, T. S., & Little, B. R. (1983). Perceived life satisfaction and the organization of personal project systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 1221-1230.
390. Paolillo, J. G. P., Jackson, J. H., & Lorenzi, P. (1986). Fusing goal integration. Human Relations, 39, 385-398.
391. Pearce, W. B., & Cronen, V. (1980). Communication, action, and meaning. New York: Praeger.
392. Perlmuter, L. C., & Monty, R. A. (Eds.). (1979). Choice and perceived control. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
393. Pervin, L. A. (1983). The stasis and flow of behavior: Toward a theory of goals. In M. M. Page (Ed.), Personality: Current theory and research (Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 30, pp. 1-53). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
394. Pervin, L. A. (Ed.). (1989a). Goal concepts in personality and social psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
395. Pervin, L. A. (1989b). Persons, situations, interactions: The history of a controversy and a discussion of theoretical models. Academy of Management Review, 14, 350-360.
396. Pervin, L. A. (Ed.). (1990). Handbook of personality theory and research. New York: Guilford Press.
397. Pervin, L. A. (1991). Self-regulation and the problem of volition. In M. L. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in achievement and motivation (Vol. 7, pp. 1-20). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
398. Pervin, L. A. (1992). The rational mind and the problem of volition. Psychological Science, 3, 162-165.
399. Pervin, L. A., & Furnham, A. (1987). Goal-based and situation-based expectations of behavior. European Journal of Personality, 1, 37-44.
400. Peterson, C. (1991). The meaning and measurement of explanatory style. Psychological Inquiry, 2, 1-10.
401. Peterson, C., Semmel, A., von Baeyer, C., Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1982). The Attributional Style Questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 6, 287-299.
402. Petri, H. L. (1996). Motivation: Theory, research, and application (4th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
403. Petty, R. E. (1994). Two routes to persuasion: State of the art. In G. d'Ydewalle, P. Eelen, & P. Bertelson (Eds.), International perspectives on psychological science (Vol. 2, pp. 229-247). Howe, England: Erlbaum.
404. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 123-205). New York: Academic Press.
405. Pfeffer, J. (1993). Barriers to the advance of organizational science: Paradigm development as a dependent variable. Academy of Management Review, 18, 599-620.
406. Piaget, J. (1970). Genetic epistemology (E. Duckworth, Trans.). New York: Norton.
407. Pinder, C., & Moore, L. (1979). The resurrection of taxonomy to aid the development of middle-range theories of organizational behavior. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 99-118.
408. Posner, M. I. (1978). Chronometric investigations of mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
409. Posner, M. I. (Ed.). (1989). Foundations of cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
410. Posner, M. I., & Shulman, G. L. (1979). Cognitive science. In E. Hearst (Ed.), The first century of experimental psychology (pp. 371-405). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
411. Powers, W. T. (1973a). Behavior: The control of perception. Chicago: Aldine.
412. Powers, W. T. (1973b, January 26). Feedback: Beyond behaviorism. Science, 179, 351-356.
413. Powers, W. T. (1978). Quantitative analysis of purposive systems: Some spadework at the foundations of scientific psychology. Psychological Review, 85, 417-435.
414. Powers, W. T. (1988). An outline of control theory: Conference workbook for texts in cybernetic theory. Felton, CA: American Society of Cybernetics.
415. Powers, W. T. (1989). Living control systems. Gravel Switch, KY: Control Systems Group.
416. Powers, W. T. (1991). Commentary on Bandura's "Human Agency." American Psychologist, 46, 151-153.
417. Powers, W. T. (1992). Living control systems II. Gravel Switch, KY: Control Systems Group.
418. Powers, W. T., Clark, R., & McFarland, R. (1960). A general feedback theory of human behavior. Part 2. Perceptual and Motor Skills Monograph, 11, (3, Serial No. 7).
419. Pritchard, R. D., Jones, S. D., Roth, P. L., Steubing, K. K., & Ekeberg, S. E. (1988). Effects of group feedback, goal setting, and incentives on organizational productivity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 337-360.
420. Puff, C. R. (Ed.). (1984). Handbook of research methods for human memory and cognition. New York: Academic Press.
421. Quick, J. C. (1979). Dyadic goal setting within organizations: Role-making and motivational considerations. Academy of Management Review, 4, 369-380.
422. Rapkin, B. D., & Fischer, K. (1992a). Framing the construct of life satisfaction in terms of older adults' personal goals. Psychology and Aging, 7, 138-149.
423. Rapkin, B. D., & Fischer, K. (1992b). Personal goals of older adults: Issues in assessment and prediction. Psychology and Aging, 7, 127-137.
424. Raynor, J. O. (1969). Future orientation and motivation of immediate activity: An elaboration of the theory of achievement motivation. Psychological Review, 76, 606-610.
425. Read, S. J., & Miller, L. C. (1993). Dissonance and balance in belief systems: The promise of parallel constraint satisfaction processes and connectionist modeling approaches. In R. C. Schank & E. J. Langer (Eds.), Beliefs, reasoning, and decision making: Psycho-logic in honor of Roben P. Abelson (pp. 209-261). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
426. Reker, G., Peacock, E., & Wong, P. (1987). Meaning and purpose of life and well-being: A life-span perspective. Journal of Gerontology, 42, 44-49.
427. Revelle, W. (1987). Personality and motivation: Sources of inefficiency in cognitive performance. Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 436-452.
428. Revelle, W. (1989). Personality, motivation, and cognitive performance. In R. Kanfer, P. L. Ackerman, & R. Cudeck (Eds.), Abilities, motivation, and methodology (pp. 297-341). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
429. Richardson, G. P. (1991). Feedback thought in social science and systems theory. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
430. Robbins, S. B., Lee, R. M., & Wan, T. T. H. (1994). Goal continuity as a mediator of early retirement adjustment: Testing a multidimensional model. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41, 18-26.
431. Roberson, L. (1989). Assessing personal work goals in the organizational setting: Development and evaluation of the Work Concerns Inventory. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 44, 345-367.
432. Roberson, L., Houston, J. M., & Diddams, M. (1989). Identifying valued work outcomes through a content analysis of personal goals. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 35, 30-45.
433. Roberts, K. H., Hulin, C. L., & Rousseau, D. M. (1978). Developing an interdisciplinary science of organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
434. Rodin, J., Timko, C., & Harris, S. (1985). The construct of control: Biological and psychosocial correlates. In P. Lawton & G. Maddux (Eds.), Annual review of gerontology and geriatrics (Vol. 5, pp. 3-55). New York: Springer.
435. Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Basic Books.
436. Ronen, S. (1994). The underlying structure of motivational need taxonomies: A cross-cultural confirmation. In H. C. Triandis, M. D. Dunnette, & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 4, pp. 241-269). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
437. Rosch, E., & Lloyd, B. B. (Eds.). (1978). Cognition and categorization. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
438. Rotter, J. B. (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
439. Rousseau, D. M. (1985). Issues of level in organizational research. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 7, pp. 1-37). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
440. Royce, J. R., & Powell, A. (1983). Theory of personality and individual differences: Factors, systems, processes. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
441. Ruble, D., Parsons, J. E., & Ross, J. (1976). Self-evaluative responses of children in an achievement setting. Child Development, 47, 990-997.
442. Rumelhart, D. (1984). Schema in social cognition. In R. S. Wyer & T. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 161-188). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
443. Rumelhart, D. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1986). Parallel distributed processing. Vol. 1: Foundations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
444. Runkel, P. (1990a). Casting nets and testing specimens: Two grand methods of psychology. New York: Praeger.
445. Runkel, P. (1990b). Research methods for control theory. American Behavioral Scientist, 43, 14-23.
446. Runyan, W. M. (1984). Life histories and psychobiography. New York: Oxford University Press.
447. Ryan, R. M. (1992). Agency and organization: Intrinsic motivation, autonomy, and the self in psychological development. In J. E. Jacobs (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 34, pp. 1-56). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
448. Ryan, T. A. (1970). Intentional behavior. New York: Ronald Press.
449. Sattath, S., & Tversky, A. (1977). Additive similarity trees. Psychometrika, 42, 319-345.
450. Schank, R. C. (1982). Dynamic memory: A theory of reminding and learning in computers and people. New York: Cambridge University Press.
451. Schank, R. C. (1993-1994). Goal-based scenarios: A radical look at education. Journal of Learning Sciences, 3, 429-453.
452. Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
453. Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1988). A model of behavioral self-regulation: Translating intention into action. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 303-346). New York: Academic Press.
454. Schlenker, B. R., & Weigold, M. F. (1989). Goals and the self-identification process: Constructing desired identities. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 243-290). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
455. Schlenker, B. R., & Weigold, M. F. (1992). Interpersonal processes involving impression regulation and management. Annual Review of Psychology, 43, 133-168.
456. Schmidt, C. F. (1976). Understanding human action: Recognizing the plans and motives of others. In J. S. Carroll & J. W. Payne (Eds.), Cognition and social behavior (pp. 47-67). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
457. Schmidt, K.-H., Kleinbeck, U., & Brockmann, W. (1984). Motivational control of motor performance by goal setting in a dual-task situation. Psychological Research, 46, 129-141.
458. Scholnick, E. K., & Friedman, S. L. (1987). The planning construct in the psychological literature. In S. L. Friedman, E. K. Scholnick, & R. R. Cocking (Eds.), Blueprints for thinking: The role of planning in cognitive development (pp. 33-38). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
459. Schumacher, G. M. (1987). Executive control in studying. In B. K., Britton & S. M. Glynn (Eds.), Executive control processes in reading(pp. 107-144). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
460. Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and tests in 20 countries. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 25, pp. 1-65). New York: Academic Press.
461. Seeman, J. (1989). Toward a model of positive health. American Psychologist, 44, 1099-1109.
462. Secord, P. F., & Greenwood, J. D. (1995). Self-knowledge of psychological states: The status of subjects' accounts. In P. E. Shrout & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), Personality research, methods, and theory (pp. 201-220). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
463. Senders, J. W., & Moray, N. P. (1991). Human error: Cause, prediction, and reduction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
464. Shallice, T. (1982). Specific impairments of planning. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London B, 298, 199-209.
465. Shallice, T., McLeod, P., & Lewis, K. (1985). Isolating cognitive modules with the dual-task paradigm: Are speech perception and production separate processes? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 37, 507-532.
466. Sharkey, N. E., & Bower, G. H. (1987). A model of memory organization for interacting goals. In P. Morris (Ed.), Modeling cognition (pp. 231-248). New York: Wiley.
467. Shaw, G. B. (1911). The doctor's dilemma [Preface]. New York: Brentanos.
468. Sheldon, K. M., & Emmons, R. A. (1995). Comparing differentiation and integration within personal goal systems. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 39-46.
469. Shiffrin, R. M., & Dumais, S. (1981). The development of automatism. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 111-140). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
470. Siegel, S. (1957). Level of aspiration and decision-making. Psychological Review, 64, 253-262.
471. Silver, M. (1985). Purposive behavior in psychology and philosophy: A history. In M. Frese & J. Sabini (Eds.), Goal directed behavior (pp. 3-17). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
472. Simon, H. A. (1955). A behavioral model of rational choice. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 69, 99-118.
473. Simon, H. A. (1964). On the concept of organizational goal. Administrative Science Quarterly, 9, 1-22.
474. Simon, H. A. (1967). Motivational and emotional controls on cognition. Psychological Review, 74, 29-39.
475. Simon, H. A. (1973). The structure of ill-structured problems. Artificial Intelligence, 4, 181-201.
476. Simon, H. A. (1992). What is an "explanation" of behavior? Psychological Science, 3, 150-161.
477. Simon, H. A. (1994). The bottleneck of attention: Connecting thought with motivation. In W. Spaulding (Ed.), Integrative view's of motivation, cognition, and emotion (Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 41, pp. 1-21). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
478. Sirgy, M. J. (1986). Self-congruity: Toward a theory of personality and cybernetics. New York: Praeger.
479. Smith, E. E., & Medin, D. L. (1981). Categories and concepts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
480. Snow, R. (1989). Cognitive-conative aptitude interactions in learning. In R. Kanfer, P. L. Ackerman, & R. Cudeck (Eds.), Abilities, motivation, and methodology (pp. 435-474). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
481. Sorrentino, R. M., & Higgins, E. T. (Eds.). (1986). Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 1). New York: Guilford Press.
482. Spangler, W. D. (1992). Validity of questionnaire and TAT measures of need for achievement: Two meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 140-154.
483. Spaulding, W. (Ed.). (1994). Integrative views of motivation, cognition, and emotion (Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 41). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
484. Spence, J. T. (Ed.). (1983). Achievement and achievement motives. San Francisco: Freeman.
485. Srull, T. K., & Wyer, R. S. (1986). The role of chronic and temporary goals in social information processing. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 503-549). New York: Guilford Press.
486. Starbuck, W. (1963). Level of aspiration. Psychological Review, 70, 51-60.
487. Staw, B. (1977). Motivation in organizations: Toward synthesis and redirection. In B. Staw & G. Salancik (Eds.), New directions in organizational behavior (pp. 54-95). Chicago: St. Clair.
488. Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 261-302.
489. Steers, R. M. (1976). Factors affecting job attitudes in a goal-setting environment. Academy of Management Journal, 19, 6-16.
490. Stein, N. L., & Levine, L. J. (1991). Making sense out of emotion: The representation and use of goal-structured knowledge. In W. Kessen, A. Ortony, & F. Craik (Eds.), Memories, thoughts, and emotions (pp. 295-322). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
491. Stein, N. L., Trabasso, T., & Liwag, M. (1993). The representation and organization of emotional experience. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 279-300). New York: Guilford Press.
492. Stryker, S., & Statham, A. (1985). Symbolic interactionism and role theory. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (3rd ed., pp. 311-379). New York: Random.
493. Tajfel, H., & Turner, R. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed., pp. 7-25). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
494. Taylor, M. S., Fisher, C. D., & Ilgen, D. R. (1984). Individuals' reactions to performance feedback in organizations: A control theory perspective. In K. Rowland & G. Ferris (Eds.), Research in personnel and human resources management (Vol. 2, pp. 81-124). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
495. Thompson, S. C. (1981). Will it hurt less if I can control it? Psychological Bulletin, 90, 89-101.
496. Thorpe, P. K., & Turner, M. L. (1993). Influence of cognitive science in the development of production systems. American Journal of Psychology, 106, 101-119.
497. Tomkins, S. S., & Messick, S. (Eds.). (1963). Computer simulation of personality. New York: Wiley.
498. Trehub, A. (1991). The cognitive brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
499. Triandis, H. C. (1994). Cross-cultural industrial and organizational psychology. In H. C. Triandis, M. D. Dunnette, & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 4, pp. 103-172). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
500. Trist, E., & Murray, H. (Eds.). (1990). The social engagement of social science: A Tavistock anthology. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
501. Trochim, W. (Ed.). (1989). Concept mapping for evaluation and planning. Evaluation and Program Planning [Special issue], 12, 1-110.
502. Trope, Y. (1975). Seeking information about one's ability as a determinant of choice among tasks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 1004-1013.
503. Trzebinski, T. (1989). The role of goal categories in the representation of social knowledge. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 363-411). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
504. Tubbs, M. E. (1986). Goal-setting: A review of the meta-analytic evidence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 474-483.
505. Tubbs, M. E. (1993). Commitment as a moderator of the goal-performance relationship: A case for clearer construct definition. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 86-97.
506. Tubbs, M. E., & Ekeberg, S. E. (1991). The role of intentions in work motivation: Implications for goal-setting theory and research. Academy of Management Review, 16, 180-199.
507. Vallacher, R. R., & Wegner, D. M. (1987). What do people think they're doing? Action identification and human behavior. Psychological Review, 94, 3-15.
508. Van Calster, K., Lens, W., & Nuttin, J. (1987). Affective attitude toward the personal future: Impact on motivation in high school boys. American Journal of Psychology, 100, 1-13.
509. Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Using HLM to study the interaction between environment, person and behavior in a multiple-goal setting situation. Manuscript submitted for publication.
510. Vancouver, J. B. (in press). Living systems theory as a paradigm of organizational behavior: Linking individuals, organizations, and social processes. Behavioral Science.
511. Vancouver, J. B., Millsap, R., & Peters, P. A. (1994). Multilevel analysis of organizational goal congruence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 666-679.
512. Vancouver, J. B., & Morrison, E. W. (1995). Feedback injury: The effect of source attributes and individual differences. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 62, 276-285.
513. Vancouver, J. B., & Schmitt, N. (1991). An exploratory examination of person-environment fit: Organizational goal congruence. Personnel Psychology, 44, 333-352.
514. Vera, A. H., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Situated action: A symbolic interpretation. Cognitive Science, 17, 7-48.
515. von Bertalanffy, L. (1968). General system theory. New York: Braziller.
516. von Cranach, M., Kalbermatten, U., Indermuhle, K., & Gugler, B. (1982). Goal-directed action. New York: Academic Press.
517. Vroom, V. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.
518. Wadsworth (Winell), M., & Ford, D. H. (1983). Assessment of personal goal hierarchies. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 30, 514-526.
519. Wakefield, J. C. (1989). Levels of explanation in personality theory. In A. R. Buss & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (pp. 333-346). New York: Springer-Verlag.
520. Wasserman, S., & Faust, K. (1991). Social network analysis: Methods and applications. New York: Cambridge University Press.
521. Weary, G., & Edwards, J. A. (1996). Causal uncertainty beliefs and related goal structures. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: The interpersonal context (Vol. 3, pp. 148-181). New York: Guilford Press.
522. Wegner, D. M. (1994). Ironic processes of mental control. Psychological Review, 101, 34-52.
523. Weinberger, J., & McClelland, D. C. (1990). Cognitive versus traditional motivational models: Irreconcilable or complementary? In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 2, pp. 562-597). New York: Guilford Press.
524. Weiner, B. (1991). Metaphors in motivation and attribution. American Psychologist, 46, 921-930.
525. Weinert, F. E., & Kluwe, R. H. (Eds.). (1988). Metacognition, motivation, and understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
526. Weldon, E., & Weingart, L. R. (1993). Group goals and group performance. British Journal of Social Psychology, 32, 307-334.
527. Wertsch, J. (Ed.). (1981). The concept of activity in Soviet psychology. New York: Sharpe.
528. Wheeler, R. J., Munz, D. C., & Jain, A. (1990). Life goals and general well-being. Psychological Reports, 66, 307-312.
529. White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review, 66, 297-333.
530. Wicker, F. W., Lambert, F. B., Richardson, F. C., & Kahler, J. (1984). Categorical goal hierarchies and classification of human motives. Journal of Personality, 52, 285-305.
531. Wicklund, R. A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1982). Symbolic self-completion. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
532. Wiener, N. (1948). Cybernetics: Control and communication in the animal and the machine. New York: Wiley.
533. Wilpert, B. (1994). Participation research in organisational psychology. In G. d'Ydewalle, P. Eelen, & P. Bertelson (Eds.), International perspectives on psychological science (Vol. 2, pp. 293-310). Howe, England: Erlbaum.
534. Winell, M. (1987). Personal goals: The key to self-direction in adulthood. In M. E. Ford & D. H. Ford (Eds.), Humans as self-constructing living systems: Putting the framework to work (pp. 261-287). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
535. Wofford, J. C., Goodwin, V. L., & Premack, S. (1992). Meta-analysis of the antecedents of personal goal level and of the antecedents and consequences of goal commitment. Journal of Management, 18, 595-615.
536. Wood, R. E. (1986). Task complexity: Definition of a construct. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 37, 60-82.
537. Wood, R. E., Bandura, A., & Bailey, T. (1990). Mechanisms governing organizational productivity in complex decision-making environmerits. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 46, 181-201.
538. Wood, R. E., & Locke, E. A. (1990). Goal setting and strategy effects on complex tasks. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 12, pp. 73-109). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
539. Wood, R. E., Mento, A. J., & Locke, E. A. (1987). Task complexity as a moderator of goal effects: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 416-425.
540. Woodworth, R. S., & Sheehan, M. R. (1964). Contemporary schools of psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Ronald Press.
541. Wright, J., & Mischel, W. (1982). Influence of affect on cognitive social learning person variables. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 901-914.
542. Wright, P. (1990). Operationalization of goal difficulty as a moderator of the goal difficulty-performance relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 227-235.
543. Wright, P., & Kacmar, K. M. (1994). Goal specificity as a determinant of goal commitment and goal change. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 59, 242-260.
544. Wright, R. A., & Brehm, J. W. (1989). Energization and goal attractiveness. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 169-210). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
545. Wyer, R. S., & Srull, T. (1989). Memory and cognition in its social context. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
546. Wyer, R. S., & Srull, T. (Eds.). (1994). Handbook of social cognition (2nd ed., Vols. 1 & 2). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
547. Young, P. T. (1961). Motivation and emotion: A survey of the determinants of human and animal activity. New York: Wiley.
548. Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Cognition and social cognition: A historical perspective. In L. Festinger (Ed.), Retrospections on social psychology (pp. 180-204). New York: Oxford University Press.
549. Zaleski, Z. (1987). Behavioral effects of self-set goals for different time ranges. International Journal of Psychology, 22, 17-38.
550. Zaleski, Z. (1988a). Attributions and emotions related to future goal attainment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 563-568.
551. Zaleski, Z. (1988b). Close relationships and acting for self-set goals. European Journal of Social Psychology, 18, 191-194.
552. Zaleski, Z. (Ed.). (1994). Psychology of future orientation. Lublin, Poland: Towarzystwo Naukowe KUL.
553. Zander, A. (1972). Motives and goals in groups. New York: Academic Press.
554. Zedeck, S., & Mosier, K. L. (1990). Work in the family and employing organization. American Psychologist, 45, 240-251.