Do gender and age moderate the symptom structure of PTSD? Findings from a national clinical sample of children and adolescents

Psychiatry Research

Volumn 210, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 1056-1064

  Contractor, Ateka A ^a   Layne, Christopher M ^c   Steinberg, Alan M ^c   Ostrowski, Sarah A ^d   Ford, Julian D ^e   Elhai, Jon D ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TOLEDO   (United States)

^b MEDICAL COLLEGE OF OHIO   (United States)

^c DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d AKRON CHILDREN'S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT   (United States)

Author keywords

Adolescent; Age; Biological sex; Child; Factor analysis; Invariance testing; Posttraumatic stress disorder

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENCE; AGE DISTRIBUTION; AMNESIA; ANGER; ARTICLE; CONCENTRATION LOSS; CONTROLLED STUDY; DISEASE SEVERITY; EMOTIONAL DISORDER; FEMALE; HOPELESSNESS; HUMAN; HYPEREKPLEXIA; IRRITABILITY; MALE; NIGHTMARE; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOLOGIC ASSESSMENT; PSYCHOTRAUMA; QUESTIONNAIRE; SEX RATIO; SLEEP DISORDER; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; THOUGHT DISORDER; ADOLESCENT; AGE; CHILD; FACTORIAL ANALYSIS; LIFE EVENT; MENTAL STRESS; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; PSYCHOLOGY; SELF REPORT; SEX DIFFERENCE; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; UNITED STATES;

ADOLESCENT; AGE FACTORS; CHILD; FACTOR ANALYSIS, STATISTICAL; FEMALE; HUMANS; LIFE CHANGE EVENTS; MALE; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; SELF REPORT; SEX FACTORS; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84888293277     PISSN: 01651781     EISSN: 18727123     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2013.09.012     Document Type: Article

References (69)

1. Agustini E.N., Asniar I., Matsuo H. The prevalence of long-term post-traumatic stress symptoms among adolescents after the tsunami in Aceh. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 2011, 18:543-549.
2. Anthony J.L., Lonigan C.J., Hecht S.A. Dimensionality of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in children exposed to disaster: results from confirmatory factor analyses. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1999, 108:326-336.
3. Armour C., Elhai J.D., Layne C.M., Shevlin M., Duraković-Belko E., Djapo N., Pynoos R.S. Gender differences in the factor structure of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in war-exposed adolescents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2011, 25:604-611.
4. Armour C., Elhai J.D., Richardson D., Ractliffee K., Wang L., Elklit A. Assessing a five factor model of PTSD: is dysphoric arousal a unique PTSD construct showing differential relationships with anxiety and depression?. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2012, 26:368-376.
5. Armour C., Layne C.M., Naifeh J.A., Shevlin M., DurakoviD́c-Belko E., Djapo N., Pynoos R.S., Elhai J.D. Assessing the factor structure of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in war-exposed youths with and without Criterion A2 endorsement. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2011, 25:80-87.
6. Ayer L.A., Cisler J.M., Danielson C.K., Amstadter A.B., Saunders B.E., Kilpatrick D.G. Adolescent posttraumatic stress disorder: an examination of factor structure reliability in two national samples. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2011, 25:411-421.
7. Bal A., Jensen B. Post-traumatic stress disorder symptom clusters in Turkish child and adolescent trauma survivors. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2007, 16:449-457.
8. Bolton D., O'Ryan D., Udwin O., Boyle S., Yule W. The long-term psychological effects of a disaster experienced in adolescence: II: general psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 2000, 41:513-523.
9. Breslau N., Anthony J.C. Gender differences in the sensitivity to posttraumatic stress disorder: an epidemiological study of urban young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2007, 116:607-611.
10. Breslau N., Kessler R.C. The stressor criterion in DSM-IV posttraumatic stress disorder: an empirical investigation. Biological Psychiatry 2001, 50:699-704.
11. Briere J. Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children: Professional Manual 1996, Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc., Odessa, FL.
12. Briggs-Gowan M.J., Carter A.S., Ford J.D. Parsing the effects violence exposure in early childhood: modeling developmental pathways. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 2012, 37:11-22.
13. Cheung G.W., Rensvold R.B. Evaluating Goodness-of-Fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal 2002, 9:233-255.
14. Cole D.A., Ciesla J.A., Steiger J.H. The insidious effects of failing to include design-driven correlated residuals in latent-variable covariance structure analysis. Psychological Methods 2007, 12:381-398.
15. Copeland W.E., Keeler G., Angold A., Costello E.J. Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress in childhood. Archives of General Psychiatry 2007, 64:577-584.
16. DeSantis S.M., Baker N.L., Back S.E., Spratt E., Ciolino J.D., Maria M.M., Dipankar B., Brady K.T. Gender differences in the effect of early life trauma on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning. Depression and Anxiety 2011, 28:383-392.
17. Ditlevsen D.N., Elklit A. The combined effect of gender and age on post traumatic stress disorder: do men and women show differences in the lifespan distribution of the disorder?. Annals of General Psychiatry 2010, 9:32.
18. Elhai J.D., Biehn T.L., Armour C., Klopper J.L., Frueh B.C., Palmieri P.A. Evidence for a unique PTSD construct represented by PTSD's D1-D3 symptoms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2011, 25:340-345.
19. Elhai J.D., Ford J.D., Ruggiero K.J., Frueh B.C. Diagnostic alterations for post-traumatic stress disorder: examining data from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication and National Survey of Adolescents. Psychological Medicine 2009, 39:1957-1966.
20. Elhai J.D., Layne C.M., Steinberg A.M., Brymer M.J., Briggs E.C., Ostrowski S.A., Ippen C.G., Pynoos R.S. Psychometric properties of the UCLA PTSD reaction index. Part 2: investigating factor structure findings in a national clinic-referred youth sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2013, 26:10-18.
21. Elhai J.D., Palmieri P.A. The factor structure of posttraumatic stress disorder: a literature update, critique of methodology, and agenda for future research. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2011, 25:849-854.
22. Elklit A., Petersen T. Exposure to traumatic events among adolescents in four nations. Torture 2008, 18:2-11.
23. Ellis B.H., Lhewa D., Charney M., Cabral H. Screening for PTSD among Somali adolescent refugees: psychometric properties of the UCLA PTSD index. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2006, 19:547-551.
24. Fairbank J.A. The epidemiology of trauma and trauma related disorders in children and youth. PTSD Research Quarterly 2008, 19:1-7.
25. Furnham A. Response bias, social desirability and dissimulation. Personality and Individual Differences 1986, 7:385-400.
26. Giannopoulou I., Strouthos M., Smith P., Dikaiakou A., Galanopoulou V., Yule W. Post-traumatic stress reactions of children and adolescents exposed to the Athens 1999 earthquake. European Psychiatry 2006, 21:160-166.
27. Graham J.W. Missing data analysis: making it work in the real world. Annual Review of Psychology 2009, 60:549-576.
28. Green B.L., Korol M., Grace M.C., Vary M.G., Leonard A.C., Gleser G.C., Smitson-Cohen S. Children and disaster: age, gender, and parental effects on PTSD symptoms. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1991, 30:945-951.
29. Gregorich S.E. Do self-report instruments allow meaningful comparisons across diverse population groups? Testing measurement invariance using the confirmatory factor analysis framework. Medical Care 2006, 44:S78-S94.
30. Habib M., Labruna V. Clinical considerations in assessing trauma and PTSD in adolescents. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma 2011, 4:198-216.
31. Hall B.J., Elhai J.D., Grubaugh A., Tuerk P., Magruder K. Examining the factor structure of PTSD between male and female veterans in primary care. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2012, 26:409-415.
32. Irish L.A., Fischer B., Fallon W., Spoonster E., Sledjeski E.M., Delahanty D.L. Gender differences in PTSD symptoms: an exploration of peritraumatic mechanisms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2011, 25:209-216.
33. Jensen T.K., Dyb G., Nygaard E. A longitudinal study of posttraumatic stress reactions in Norwegian children and adolescents exposed to the 2004 Tsunami. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 2009, 163:856-861.
34. Kaplow J.B., Dodge K.A., Amaya-Jackson L., Saxe G.N. Pathways to PTSD, Part II: sexually abused children. American Journal of Psychiatry 2005, 162:1305-1310.
35. Kar N., Mohapatra P.K., Nayak K.C., Pattanaik P., Swain S.P., Kar H.C. Post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents one year after a super-cyclone in Orissa, India: exploring cross-cultural validity and vulnerability factors. BMC Psychiatry 2007, 7:8.
36. Kessler R.C., Sonnega A., Bromet E., Hughes M., Nelson C.B. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity survey. Archives of General Psychiatry 1995, 52:1048-1060.
37. Kilpatrick D.G., Ruggiero K.J., Acierno R., Saunders B.E., Resnick H.S., Best C.L. Violence and risk of PTSD, major depression, substance abuse/dependence, and comorbidity: results from the national survey of adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2003, 71:492-700.
38. King D.W., Leskin G.A., King L.A., Weathers F.W. Confirmatory factor analysis of the Clinician-Administered PTSD scale: evidence for the dimensionality of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Assessment 1998, 10:90-96.
39. Laufer A., Solomon Z. Gender differences in PTSD in Israeli youth exposed to terror attacks. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2009, 24:959-976.
40. Layne C.M., Olsen J.A., Baker A., Legerski J.-P., Isakson B., Pašalić A., Duraković-Belko E., Dapo N., Ćampara N., Arslanagić B., Saltzman W.R., Pynoos R.S. Unpacking trauma exposure risk factors and differential pathways of influence: predicting postwar mental distress in Bosnian adolescents. Child Development 2010, 81:1053-1076.
41. Marshall G.N., Schell T.L., Miles J.N.V. A multi-sample confirmatory factor analysis of PTSD symptoms: what exactly is wrong with the DSM-IV structure?. Clinical Psychology Review 2013, 33:54-66.
42. Meiser-Stedman R., Smith P., Glucksman E., Yule W., Dalgleish T. The posttraumatic stress disorder diagnosis in preschool- and elementary school-age children exposed to motor vehicle accidents. American Journal of Psychiatry 2008, 165:1326-1337.
43. Meredith W., Teresi J.A. An essay on measurement and factorial invariance. Medical Care 2006, 44:S69-S77.
44. Muthén L.K., Muthén B.O. Mplus User's Guide 1998-2007, Muthén & Muthén, Los Angeles, CA. 5th ed.
45. Norris F.H., Kaniasty K., Conrad M.L., Inman G.L., Murphy A.D. Placing age differences in cultural context: a comparison of the effects of age on PTSD after disasters in the United States, Mexico, and Poland. Journal of Clinical Geropsychology 2002, 8:153-173.
46. Olff M., Langeland W., Draijer N., Gersons B.P.R. Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin 2007, 133:183-204.
47. Peters L., Issakidis C., Slade T., Andrews G. Gender differences in the prevalence of DSM-IV and ICD-10 PTSD. Psychological Medicine 2006, 36:81-89.
48. Pynoos R.S., Fairbank J.A., Steinberg A.M., Amaya-Jackson L., Gerrity E., Mount M., Maze J. The National Child Traumatic Stress Network: collaborating to improve the standard of care. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 2008, 39:389-395.
49. Pynoos R.S., Steinberg A.M., Layne C.M., Briggs E.C., Ostrowski S.A., Fairbank J.A. DSM-V PTSD diagnostic criteria for children and adolescents: a developmental perspective and recommendations. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2009, 22:391-398.
50. Sack W.H., Seeley J.R., Clarke G.N. Does PTSD transcend cultural barriers? A study from the Khmer adolescent refugee project. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1997, 36:49-54.
51. Salmon K., Bryant R.A. Posttraumatic stress disorder in children. The influence of developmental factors. Clinical Psychology Review 2002, 22:163-188.
52. Saul A.L., Grant K.E., Carter J.S. Post-traumatic reactions in adolescents: how well do the DSM-IV PTSD criteria fit the real life experience of trauma exposed youth?. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 2008, 36:915-925.
53. Schafer J.L., Graham J.W. Missing data: our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods 2002, 7:147-177.
54. Scheeringa M.S., Wright M.J., Hunt J.P., Zeanah C.H. Factors affecting the diagnosis and prediction of PTSD symptomatology in children and adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry 2006, 163:644-651.
55. Scheeringa M.S., Zeanah C.H., Cohen J.A. PTSD in children and adolescents toward an emperically based algorithm. Depression and Anxiety 2011, 28:770-782.
56. Simms L.J., Watson D., Doebbeling B.N. Confirmatory factor analyses of posttraumatic stress symptoms in deployed and nondeployed veterans of the Gulf war. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2002, 111:637-647.
57. Stallard P., Salter E., Velleman R. Posttraumatic stress disorder following road traffic accidents - a second prospective study. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2004, 13:172-178.
58. Steinberg A.M., Brymer M., Decker K., Pynoos R.S. The UCLA PTSD reaction index. Current Psychiatry Reports 2004, 6:96-100.
59. Steinberg A.M., Brymer M.J., Kim S., Briggs E.C., Ippen C.G., Ostrowski S.A., Gully K.J., Pynoos R.S. Psychometric properties of the UCLA PTSD reaction index: Part I. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2013, 26:1-9.
60. Tolin D.F., Foa E.B. Gender and PTSD. A cognitive model. Gender and PTSD 2002, 76-113. The Guilford Press, New York. R. Kimerling, P.C. Ouimette, J. Wolfe (Eds.).
61. Tolin D.F., Foa E.B. Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: a quantitative review of 25 years of research. Psychological Bulletin 2006, 132:959-992.
62. Trickey D., Siddaway A.P., Meiser-Stedman R., Serpell L., Field A.P. A meta-analysis of risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Clinical Psychology Review 2012, 32:122-138.
63. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Administration for Children and Family, 2002. National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS) Glossary (SDC and DCDC Combined), NCANDS Survey Instrument.
64. Walker J.L., Carey P.D., Mohr N., Stein D.J., Seedat S. Gender differences in the prevalence of childhood sexual abuse and in the development of pediatric PTSD. Archives of Women's Mental Health 2004, 7:111-121.
65. Wang L., Di Long D., Li Z., Armour C. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder symptom structure in Chinese adolescents exposed to a deadly earthquake. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 2011, 39:749-758.
66. Wang L., Li Z., Shi Z., Zhang J., Zhang K., Liu Z., Elhai J.D. Testing the dimensionality of posttraumatic stress responses in young Chinese adult earthquake survivors: further evidence for 'dysphoric arousal' as a unique PTSD construct. Depression and Anxiety 2011, 28:1097-1104.
67. Wang M., Armour C., Li X., Dai X., Zhu X., Yao S. The factorial invariance across gender of three well-supported models. Further evidence for a five-factor model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 2013, 201:145-152.
68. Wang M., Elhai J.D., Dai X., Yao S. Longitudinal invariance of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adolescent earthquake survivors. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2012, 26:263-270.
69. Yufik T., Simms L.J. A meta-analytic investigation of the structure of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2010, 119:764-776.