Designing Nanofibrous Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering

Advanced Biomaterials: Fundamentals, Processing, and Applications

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 435-497

  Arya, Neha ^a   Sharma, Poonam ^a   Katti, Dhirendra S ^a  

^a INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR   (India)

Author keywords

Designing nanofibrous scaffolds for tissue engineering; Methods of nanofibrous scaffold synthesis novel fabrication techniques developed; Tissue engineering electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds

Indexed keywords

EID: 84886185015     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470891315.ch13     Document Type: Chapter

References (293)

1. Betz RR. Limitations of autograft and allograft:new synthetic solutions. Orthopedics 2002;25(5):561-570.
2. Zhong R, Platt JL. Current status of animal to human transplantation. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2005;5(11):1415-1420.
3. Langer R, Vacanti JP. Tissue engineering. Science 1993;260 :920-926.
4. Nerem MR, Sambanis A. Tissue engineering:From biology to biological substitutes. Tissue Eng 1995;1(1):3-13.
5. Shieh SJ, Vacanti JP. State-of-the-art tissue engineering:From tissue engineering to organ building. Surgery 2005;137(1):1-7.
6. Langer R. Tissue engineering. Mol Ther 2000;1(1):12-15.
7. Noishiki Y. In vivo tissue engineering:dreams for the future. J Artif Organs 2000;3 :5-11.
8. Han D, Gouma PI. Electrospun bioscaffolds that mimic the topology of extracellular matrix. Nanomed Nanotech Biol Med 2006;2 :37-41.
9. Hutmacher DW, Cool S. Concepts of scaffold-based tissue engineering-the rationale to use solid free-form fabrication techniques. J Cell Mol Med 2007;11(4):654-669.
10. Cancedda R, Dozin B, Giannoni P, Quarto R. Tissue engineering and cell therapy of cartilage and bone. Matrix Biol 2003;22 :81-91.
11. Jakob RP, Varlet PM, Gautier E. Isolated articular cartilage lesion:repair or regeneration. Osteoarth Cart 2001;9(Supplement A):S 3-S 5.
12. Brittberg M, Lindahl A, Nilsson A, Ohlsson C, Isaksson O, Peterson L. Treatment of deep cartilage defects in the knee with autologous chondrocyte transplantation. New Engl J Med 1994;331 :889-895.
13. Kim BS, Mooney DJ. Development of biocompatible synthetic extracellular matrices for tissue engineering. Trends Biotechnol 1998;16 :224-230.
14. Yang S, Leong KF, Zhaohui DU, Chua CK. The design of scaffolds for use in tissue engineering. Part I. Traditional Factors. Tissue Eng 2001;7(6):679-689.
15. Agrawal CM, Ray RB. Biodegradable polymeric scaffolds for musculoskeletal tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res 2001;55 :141-150.
16. Ikada Y. In:Tissue engineering :fundamentals and applications. By Ikada Y. New York :Academic Press;2006 :1-90.
17. Lee JH, Jung HW, Kang IK, Lee HB. Cell behaviour on polymer surfaces with different functional groups. Biomaterials 1994;15 :705-711.
18. Miot S, Woodfield T, Daniels AU, Suetterlin R, Peterschmitt I, Heberer M, van Blitterswijk CA, Riesle J, Martin I. Effects of scaffold composition and architecture on human nasal chondrocyte redifferentiation and cartilaginous matrix deposition. Biomaterials 2005;26(15):2479-2489.
19. Woodfield TBF, Miot S, Martin I, van Blitterswijk CA, Riesle J. The regulation of expanded human nasal chondrocyte re-differentiation capacity by substrate composition and gas plasma surface modifi cation. Biomaterials 2006;27 :1043-1053.
20. Bhardwaj T, Pilliar RM, Grynpas MD, Kandel RA. Effect of material geometry on cartilaginous tissue formation in vitro. J Biomed Mater Res 2001;57 :190-199.
21. Frenkel SR, Cesare PE. Scaffolds for articular cartilage repair. Ann Biomed Engg 2004;32(1):26-34.
22. Lu L, Mikos AG. The importance of new processing techniques in tissue engineering. MRS Bulletin 1996;21(11):28-32.
23. Flemming RG, Murphy CJ, Abrams GA, Goodman SL, Nealey PF. Effects of synthetic micro-and nano-structured surfaces on cell behavior. Biomaterials 1999;20: 573-588.
24. Misra SK, Mohn D, Brunner TJ, Stark WJ, Philip SE, Roy I, Salih V, Knowles JA, Boccaccini AR. Comparison of nanoscale and microscale bioactive glass on the properties of P(3HB)/bioglass composites. Biomaterials 2008;29 :1750-1761.
25. Yates KE, Allemann F, Glowacki J. Phenotypic analysis of bovine chondrocytes cultured in 3D collagen sponges:effect of serum substitutes. Cell Tissue Bank 2005;6(1):45-54.
26. Jackson DW, Lalor PA, Aberman HM, Simon TM. Spontaneous repair of full-thickness defects of articular cartilage in a goat model. J Bone Joint Surg 2001; 83 :53.
27. Freed LE, Vunjak-novakovic G. Culture of organized cell communities. Adv Drug Dev Rev 1998;33 :15-30.
28. Tan J, Saltzman M. Topographical control of human neutrophil motility on micropatterned materials with various surface chemistry. Biomaterials 2002;23 :3215-3225.
29. Berry CC, Campbell G, Spadiccino A, Robertson M, Curtis ASG. The infl uence of microscale topography on fi broblast attachment and motility. Biomaterials 2004;25: 5781-5788.
30. Curtis A, Wilkinson C. Topographical control of cells. Biomaterials 1997;18 :1573-1583.
31. Price RJ, Ellison K, Haberstroh KM, Webster TJ. Nanometer surface roughness increases select osteoblast adhesion on carbon nanofi ber compacts. J Biomed Mater Res 2004;70 :129-138.
32. Dalby MJ, Riehle MO, Sutherland DS, Agheli H, Curtis ASG. Changes in fi broblast morphology in response to nano-columns produced by colloidal lithography. Biomaterials 2004;25 :5415-5422.
33. Lavine M. Design for living. Science 2005;310 :1131-1132.
34. Kwon IK, Kidoaki S, Matsuda T. Electrospun nano-to microfi ber fabrics made of biodegradable copolyesters:structural characteristics, mechanical properties and cell adhesion potential. Biomaterials 2005;26 :3929-3939.
35. Mow VC, Ratcliffe A, Poole AR. Cartilage and diarthrodial joints as paradigms for hierarchical materials and structures. Biomaterials 1992;13(2):67-97.
36. Stevens MM, George JH. Exploring and engineering the cell surface interface. Science 2005;310 :1135-1138.
37. Roskelley CD, Srebrow A, Bissell MJ. A hierarchy of ECM-mediated signaling tissue-specifi c gene expression. Curr Opin Cell Biol 1995;7 :736-747.
38. Wallner EI, Yang Q, Peterson DR, Wada J, Kanwar YS. Relevance of extracellular matrix, its receptors, and cell adhesion molecules in mammalian nephrogenesis. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 1998;275 :467-477.
39. Shih YRV, Chen CN, Tsai SW, Wang YJ, Lee OK. Growth of mesenchymal stem cells on electrospun type I collagen nanofi bers. Stem Cells 2006;24 :2391-2397.
40. Norman JJ, Desai T. Methods for fabrication of nanoscale topography for tissue engineering scaffolds. Ann Biomed Engg 2006;34(1):89-101.
41. Juliano RL, Haskill S. Signal transduction from the extracellular matrix. J Cell Biol 1993;120(3):577-585.
42. Sun T, Norton D, Mckean RJ, Haycock JW, Ryan JA, Macneil S. Development of a 3D cell culture system for investigating cell interactions with electrospun fi bers. Biotechnol & Bioeng 2007;97 :1318-1328.
43. Lanza RP, Langer R, Vacanti J. Principles of Tissue engineering. San Diego:Academic Press. 2000 ;p 251-262.
44. Mikos AG, Bao Y, Cima LG, Ingber DE, Vacanti JP, Langer R. Preparation of poly(glycolic acid) bonded fiber structures for cell attachment and transplantation. J Biomed Mater Res 1993a;27 :183-189.
45. Freed LE, Marquis JC, Nohria A, Emmanual J, Mikos AG, Langer R. Neocartilage formation in vitro and in vivo using cells cultured on synthetic biodegradable polymers. J Biomed Mater Res 1993;27(1); 11-23.
46. Mikos AG, Sarakinos G, Leite SM, Vacanti JP, Langer R. Laminated three-dimensional biodegradable foams for use in tissue engineering. Biomaterials 1993b;14 :323-330.
47. Thomson RC, Yaszemski MJ, Powers JM, Mikos AG. Fabrication of biodegradable polymer scaffolds to engineer trabecular bone. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 1996;7(1):23-28.
48. Pezzotti G, Asmus SMF, Ferroni LP, Miki S. In situ polymerization into porous ceramics: a novel route to tough biomimetic materials. J Mater Sci Mater Med 2002;13 :783-787.
49. Whang K, Thomas H, Healy KE. A novel method to fabricate bioabsorbable scaffolds. Polymer 1995;36 :837-841.
50. Mooney DJ, Baldwin DE, Suh NP, Vacanti JP, Langer R. Novel approach to fabricate porous sponges of poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) without the use of organic solvents. Biomaterials 1996;17 :1417-1422.
51. Widmer MS, Gupta PK, Lu L, Meszlenyi RK, Evans GR, Brandt K, Savel T, Gurlek A, Patrick CW Jr, Mikos AG. Manufacture of porous biodegradable polymer conduits by an extrusion process for guided tissue regeneration. Biomaterials 1998;19 :1945-1955.
52. Park A, Wu B, Griffith LG. Integration of surface modifi cation and 3D fabrication techniques to prepare patterned poly(L-lactide) substrates allowing regionally selective cell adhesion. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 1998;9 :89-110.
53. Thomson RC, Yaszemski MJ, Powers JM, Mikos AG. Hydroxyapatite fi ber reinforced poly(a-hydroxy ester) foams for bone regeneration. Biomaterials 1998;19 :1935-1943.
54. Vasita R, Katti DS. Nanofi bers and their applications in tissue engineering. Int J Nanomed 2006;1 :15-20.
55. Whitesides GM, Boncheva M. Beyond molecules:self-assembly of mesoscopic and macroscopic components. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99 :4769-4774.
56. Kisiday J, Jin M, Kurz B, Hung H, Semino C, Zhang S, Grodzinsky AJ. Self-assembling peptide hydrogel fosters chondrocyte extracellular matrix production and cell division: Implications for cartilage tissue repair. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99 :9996-10001.
57. Hamley IW. Nanotechnology with soft materials. Angew Chem Int Ed 2003;42 :1692-1712.
58. Hartgerink JD, Beniash E, Stupp SI. Self-assembly and mineralization of peptide-amphiphile nanofi bers. Science 2001;294 :1684-1688.
59. Hartgerink JD, Beniash E, Stupp SI. Peptide-amphiphile nanofi bers:A versatile scaffold for the preparation of self-assembling materials. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 2002;99(8):5133-5138.
60. Hosseinkhani H, Hosseinkhani M, Khademhosseini A. Tissue regeneration through self-assembled peptide amphiphile nanofi bers. Yakhteh Med J 2006;8(3):204-209.
61. Ma Z, Kotaki M, Inai R, Ramakrishna S. Potential of nanofi ber matrix as tissue-engineering scaffolds. Tissue Eng 2005;11(1/2):101-108.
62. Ma PX, Zhang R. Synthetic nano-scale fi brous extracellular matrix. J Biomed Mater Res 1999;46(1):60-72.
63. Hua FJ, Kim GE, Lee JD, Son YK, Lee SD. Macroporous Poly(L-lactide) Scaffold 1. Preparation of a macroporous scaffold by liquid-liquid phase separation of a PLLA-dioxane-water system. J Biomed Mater Res 2001;22 :1053-1057.
64. Yang F, Murugana R, Ramakrishna S, Wang X, Ma YX, Wang S. Fabrication of nano-structured porous PLLAscaffold intended for nerve tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2004;25 :1891-1900.
65. Witte P van de, Dijkstra PJ, Berg JWA van den, Feijen J. Phase separation processes in polymer solutions in relation to membrane formation. J Memb Sci 1996;117: 1-31.
66. Huang YX, Ren J, Chen C, Ren TB, Zhou XY. Preparation and properties of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA)/nano-hydroxyapatite (NHA) scaffolds by thermally induced phase separation and rabbit MSCs culture on scaffolds. J Biomater Appl 2007.
67. Buckley CT, Kelly KU. Regular scaffold fabricaton techniques for investigations in tissue engineering. Topics in Bio-mechanical engineering. P.J. Prendergast and P.E. McHugh (Eds.) 2004;147-166.
68. Li D, Xia Y. Electrospinning of nanofi bers:Reinventing the wheel? Adv Mater 2004;16(14):1151-1170.
69. Bognitzki M, Czado W, Frese T, Schaper A, Hellwig M, Steinhart M, Greiner A, and Wendorff JH. Nanostructured fi bers via electrospinning. Adv Mater 2001;13 :70-72.
70. Lord Rayleigh X. London, Edinburgh, Dublin Philos Mag 1882;44 :184.
71. Zeleny J. Instability of electrifi ed liquid surfaces. Phys Rev 1917;10 :1-6.
72. Taylor GI. Disintegration of water drops in an electric fi eld. Proc R Soc London Ser A 1964;280 :383-397.
73. Taylor GI, Mcewan AD. The stability of horizontally fl uid interface in a vertical electrical fi eld. J Fluid Mech 1965;22 :1-15.
74. Taylor GI. The force exerted by an electric fi eld on a long cylindrical conductor. Proc R Soc London Ser A 1966;291 :145-158.
75. Taylor GI. Electrically driven jets. Proc R Soc London Ser A 1969;313 :453-475.
76. Formhals A. Process and apparatus for preparing artificial threads. US patent 1,975,504 1934.
77. Doshi J, Reneker DH. Electrospinning process and applications of electrospun fi bers. J Electrostat 1995;35 :151-160.
78. Reneker DH, Yarin AL, Fong H, Koombhongse S. Bending instability of electrically charged liquid jets of polymer solutions in electrospinning. J Appl Phy 2000;87(9): 4531-4547.
79. Arya N, Chakraborty S, Dube N, Katti DS. Electrospraying:A facile technique for the synthesis of chitosan based micro/nanoparticles. J Biomed Mat Res Part B; Appl Biomater 2009;88 :17-31.
80. Ramakrishna S, Fujihara K, Ganesh VK, Teo WE, Lim TC. Science and engineering of polymer nanofi bers. In:Geckeler KE, Rosenberg E editors, Functional nanomaterials American Scientifi c Publishers 2005;113-151.
81. Lee KH, Kim HY, Khil MS, Ra YM, Lee DR. Characterization of nano-structured poly(e-caprolactone) nonwoven mats via electrospinning. Polymer 2003;44 :1287-1294.
82. Katti DS, Robinson KW, Ko FK, Laurencin CT. Bioresorbable nanofi ber-based systems for wound healing and drug delivery:optimization of fabrication parameters. J Biomed Mater Res B:Appl Biomater 2004;70 :286-296.
83. Lee KH, Kim HY, La YM, Lee DR, Sung NH. Infl uence of a mixing solvent with tetrahydrofuran and N,N-dimethylformamide on electrospun poly(vinyl chloride) nonwoven mats. J Polym Sci Part B:Polym Phys 2002;40 :2259-2268.
84. Lee JS, Choi KH, Ghim HD, Kim SS, Chun DH, Kim HY, Lyoo WS. Role of molecular weight of atactic poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) in the structure and properties of PVA nanofabric prepared by electrospinning. J Appl Polym Sci 2004;93 :1638-1646.
85. Zhao S, Wu X, Wang L, Huang X. Electrospinning of ethyl-cyanoethyl cellulose/tetrahydrofuran solutions. J Appl Polym Sci 2004;91 :242-246.
86. Casper CL, Stephens JS, Tassi NG, Chase DB, Rabolt JF. Controlling surface morphology of electrospun polystyrene fi bers:effect of humidity and molecular weight in the electrospinning process. Macromolecules 2004;37 :573-578.
87. Choi JS, Lee SW, Jeong L, Bae SH, Min BC, Youk JH, Park WH. Effect of organosoluble salts on the nanofi brous structure of electrospun poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate). International J Biol Macromol 2004;34 :249-256.
88. Yang F, Murugan R, Wang S, Ramakrishna S. Electrospinning of nano/micro scale poly(L-lactic acid) aligned fi bers and their potential in neural tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2005;26 :2603-2610.
89. Matthews JA, Wnek GE, Simpson DG, Bowlin GL. Electrospinning of collagen nanofi bers. Biomacromolecules 2002;3 :232-238.
90. Sundaray B, Subramanian V, Natarajan TS, Xiang RZ, Chang CC, Fann WS. Electrospinning of continuous aligned polymer fi bers. App Phy Lett 2004;84(7):1222-1224.
91. Theron A, Zussman E, Yarin AL. Electrostatic fi eld-assisted alignment of electrospun nanofi bers. Nanotechnology 2001;12 :384-390.
92. Lee CH, Shin HJ, Cho IH, Kang YM, Kim IA, Park KD, Shin JW. Nanofi ber alignment and direction of mechanical strain affect the ECM production of human ACL fi broblast. Biomaterials 2005;26 :1261-1270.
93. Xu CY, Inai R, Kotaki M, Ramakrishna S. Aligned biodegradable nanofi brous structure:a potential scaffold for blood vessel engineering. Biomaterials 2004;25 :877-886.
94. Lutolf MP, Hubbell JA. Synthetic biomaterials as instructive extracellular microenvironments for morphogenesis in tissue engineering. Nat Biotech 2005;23 :47-55.
95. Tuzlakoglu K, Bolgen N, Salgado AJ, Gomes ME, Piskin E, Reis RL. Nano-and micro-fi ber combined scaffolds:a new architecture for bone tissue engineering. J Mater Sci Mater Med 2005;16 :1099-1104.
96. Sahoo S, Ouyang H, Goh JCH, Tay TE, Toh SL. Characterization of a novel polymeric scaffold for potential application in tendon/ligament tissue engineering. Tissue Eng 2006;12 :91-99.
97. Nicholson AT, Jayasinghe SN. Cell electrospinning:A unique biotechnique for encapsulating living organisms for generating active biological microthreads/scaffolds. Biomacromol 2006;7 :3364-3369.
98. Jiang H, Hu Y, Li Y, Zhao P, Zhu P, Chen W. A facile technique to prepare biodegradable coaxial electrospun nanofi bers for controlled release of bioactive agents. J Cont Rel 2005;108 :237-243.
99. Dosunmu OO, Chase GG, Varabhas JS, Kataphinan W, Reneker DH. Polymer nanofi bers from multiple jets produced on a porous surface by electrospinning. Chapter 10:Polymer Nanocomposites.
100. Ramakrishna S, Fujihara K, Teo WE, Yong T, Ma Z, Ramaseshan R. Electrospun nanofi bers :solving global issues. Materials Today 2006;9 :40-50.
101. Shields JK, Beckman JM, Bowlin GL, Wayne J. Mechanical properties and cellular proliferation of electrospun collagen type II. Tissue Eng 2004;10(9-10):1510-1517.
102. Li C, Vepari C, Jin HJ, Kim HJ, Kaplan DJ. Electrospun silk-BMP-2 scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2006;27 :3115-3124.
103. Chong EJ, Phan TT, Lim IJ, Zhang YZ, Bay BH, Ramakrishna S, Lim CT. Evaluation of electrospun PCL/gelatin nanofi brous scaffold for wound healing and layered dermal reconstitution. Acta Biomaterialia 2007;3 :321-330.
104. Xua CY, Inaic R, Kotaki M, Ramakrishna S. Aligned biodegradable nanofi brous structure:a potential scaffold for blood vessel engineering. Biomaterials 2004;25 :877-886.
105. Riboldi Sa, Sampaolesi M, Neuenschwander P, Cossu G, Mantero S. Electrospun degradable polyesterurethane membranes:potential scaffolds for skeletal muscle tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2005;26 :4606-4615.
106. Zeng J, Aigner A, Czubayko F, Kissel T, Wendorff JH, Greiner A. Poly(vinyl alcohol) nanofi bers by electrospinning as a protein delivery system and the retardation of enzyme release by additional polymer coatings. Biomacromol 2005;6(3):1484-1488.
107. Liang D, Luu YK, Kim K, Hsiao BS, Hadjiargyrou M, Chu B. In vitro non-viral gene delivery with nanofi brous scaffolds. Nucleic Acids Res 2005;33(19):e170.
108. Wang X, Drew C, Lee SH, Senecal KJ, Kumar J, Samuelson LA. Electrospinning technology:a novel approach to sensor application. J Macromol Sci Part A 2002; 39(10):1251-1258.
109. Gopal R, Kaur S, Feng CY, Chan C, Ramakrishna S, Tabe S, Matsuura T. Electrospun nanofi brous polysulfone membranes as pre-fi lters:particulate removal. J Memb Sci 2007;289 :210-219.
110. Lee S, Obendorf SK. Developing protective textile materials as barriers to liquid penetration using melt-electrospinning. J Appl Polym Sci 2006;102 :3430-3437.
111. Kim C, Yang KS. Electrochemical properties of carbon nanofi ber web as an electrode for supercapacitor prepared by electrospinning. App Phy Lett 2003;83(6):1216-1218.
112. Coombes AGA, Verderio E, Shaw B, Li X, Griffin M, Downes S. Biocomposites of non-crosslinked natural and synthetic polymers. Biomaterials 2002;23 :2113-2118.
113. Xie J, Hsieh YL. Ultra-high surface fi brous membranes from electrospinning of natural proteins:casein and lipase enzyme. J Mater Sci 2003;38(10):2125-2133.
114. Aigner T, Stove J. Collagens-major component of the physiological cartilage matrix, major target of cartilage degeneration, major tool in cartilage repair. Adv Drug Dev Rev 2003;55 :1569-1593.
115. Brinckmann J, Notbohm H, Müller PK. Collagen:primer in structure, processing and assembly. Top Curr Chem 2005;247 :1-6.
116. Brinckmann J, Notbohm H, Müller PK. Collagen:primer in structure, processing and assembly. Top Curr Chem 2005;247 :7-33.
117. Shields KJ, Beckman MJ, Bowlin GL, Wayne JS. Mechanical properties and cellular proliferation of electrospun collagen type II. Tissue Eng 2004;10 :1510-1517.
118. Barnes CP, Pemble CW, Brand DD, Simpson DG, Bowlin GL. Cross-linking electrospun type II collagen tissue engineering scaffolds with carbodiimide in ethanol. Tissue Eng 2007;13(7):1593-1605.
119. Rowlands AG, Burrows DJ, Rainville RF, Noble P. Gelatin and method of manufacture. US Patent 185-441 2001.
120. Kallinteri P, Antimisiaris SG. Solubility of drugs in the presence of gelatin:effect of drug lipophilicity and degree of ionization. Int J Pharm 2001;221 :219-226.
121. Baziwane D, He Q. Gelatin:the paramount food additive. Food Rev Int 2003;19(4): 423-435.
122. Djagny KB, Wang Z, Xu S. Gelatin:A valuable protein for food and pharmaceutical industries:review. Crit Rev Food Sci Neut 2001;41(6):481-492.
123. Huang ZM, Zhang YZ, Ramakrishna S. Electrospinning and mechanical characterization of gelatin nanofi bers. Polymer 2004;45 :5361-5368.
124. Ki CS, Baek HD, Gang KD, Lee KH, Um IC, Park YH. Characterization of gelatin nanofi ber prepared from gelatin-formic acid solution. Polymer 2005;46 :5094-5102.
125. Zhang YZ, Venugopal J, Lim CT, Ramakrishna S. Crosslinking of the electrospun gelatin nanofi bers. Polymer 2006;47 :2911-2917.
126. Padamwar MN, Pawar AP. Silk sericin and its applications:a review. J Scient Ind Res 2004;63(4):323-329.
127. Zarkoob S, Eby RK, Reneker DH, Hudson SD, Ertley D, Adams WW. Structure and morphology of electrospun silk nanofi bers. Polymer 2004;45 :3973-3977.
128. Sukigara S, Gandhi M, Ayutsede J, Micklus M, Ko F. Regeneration of Bombyx mori silk by electrospinning-part 1:processing parameters and geometric properties. Polymer 2003;44 :5721-5727.
129. Ayutsede J, Gandhi M, Sukigara S, Micklus M, Chen HE, Ko F. Regeneration of Bombyx mori silk by electrospinning-Part 3:Characterization of electrospun nonwoven mat. Polymer 2005;46 :1625-1634.
130. Bowlin GL, Wnek GE, Simpson DG, Lam P, Bruno S, Carr Jr ME. Electro processed fibrin-based matrices and tissues. US patent. 60270118, 2001.
131. Mcmanus MC, Boland ED, Simpson DG, Barnes CP, Bowlin GL. Electrospun fi brinogen: Feasibility as a tissue engineering scaffold in a rat cell culture model. J Biomed Mater Res Part A 2006;81 (2):299-309.
132. Mcmanus M, Boland E, Sell S, Bowen W, Koo H, Simpson DG, Bowlin G. Electrospun nanofi ber fi brinogen for urinary tract tissue reconstruction. Biomed Mater 2007;2 :257-262.
133. Buttafoco L, Kolkman NG, Buijtenhuijs PE, Poot AA, Dijkstra PJ, Vermes I, Feijen J. Electrospinning of collagen and elastin for tissue engineering applications. Biomaterials 2006;27 :724-734.
134. Barnes CP, Smith JM, Bowlin GL, Sell AS, Tang T, Matthews JA, Simpson DG, Nimtz JC. Feasibility of electrospinning the globular proteins hemoglobin and myoglobin. Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics 2006;1(2):16-29.
135. Stick RV. Glycoconjugates and glycobiology. In:Carbohydrates:the sweet molecules of life. By Robert V. Stick. New York, Academic Press, 2001 :223-231.
136. Poole AR, Kojima T, Yasuda T, Mwale F, Kobayashi M, Laverty S. Cartilage biology. In:Brighton CT, editor in chief. Clinical orthopaedics and related research. Hagerstown, MD :Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2001 :S 26-S 33.
137. Noble PW. Hyaluronan and its catabolic products in tissue injury and repair. Matrix Biol 2002;21(1):25-29.
138. Kakehi K, Kinoshita M, Yasueda S. Hyaluronic acid:separation and biological implications. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2003;797(1-2): 347-55.
139. Ji Y, Ghosh K, Shu XZ, Li B, Sokolov JC, Prestwich GD, Clark RA, Rafailovich MH. Electrospun three-dimensional hyaluronic acid nanofi brous scaffolds. Biomaterials 2006;27(20):3782-3792.
140. Um IC, Fang D, Hsiao BS, Okamoto A, Chu B. Electro-spinning and electro-blowing of hyaluronic acid. Biomacromolecules 2004;5(4):1428-1436.
141. Li J, He A, Han CC, Fang D, Benjamin S, Hsiao, Chu B. Electrospinning of hyaluronic acid(HA) and HA/gelatin Blends. Macromol Rapid Commun 2006; 27(2):114-120.
142. Gacesa P. Alginates. Carbohydrate Polymers 1988;8 :161-182.
143. Loredo GA, Koolpe M, Benton HP. Infl uence of alginate polysaccharide composition and culture conditions on chondrocytes in three-dimensional culture. Tissue Eng 1996;2(2):112-115.
144. Glicklis R, Shapiro L, Agbaria R, Merchuk JC, Cohen S. Hepatocyte behavior within three-dimensional porous alginate scaffolds. Biotechnol Bioeng 2000;67(3):344-353.
145. Lu JW, Zu YL, Guo ZX, Hu P, Yu J. Electrospinning of sodium alginate with poly(ethylene oxide). Polymer 2006;47 :8026-8031.
146. Bhattarai N, Li Z, Edmondson D, Zhang M. Alginate-based nanofi brous scaffolds: structural, mechanical, and biological properties. Adv Mater 2006;18 :1463-1467.
147. Rhazi M, Desbri È Res J, Tolaimate A, Alagui A, Vottero P. Investigation of different natural sources of chitin:infl uence of the source and deacetylation process on the physicochemical characteristics of chitosan. Polymer Int 344. 2000;47(4): 337.
148. Kumar MNVR. A review of chitin and chitosan applications. React Funct Polymer 2000;46 :1-27.
149. Noh KH, Lee WS, Kim JM, Oh JE, Kim KH, Chung CP, Choi SC, Park WH, Min BM. Electrospinning of chitin nanofi bers:Degradation behavior and cellular response to normal human keratinocytes and fi broblasts. Biomaterials 2006;27 :3934-3944.
150. Geng X, Kwon OH, Jang J. Electrospinning of chitosan dissolved in concentrated acetic acid solution. Biomaterials 2005;26 :5427-5432.
151. Li L, Hsieh YL. Chitosan bicomponent nanofi bers and nanoporous fi bers. Carbo Res 2006;341 :374-381.
152. Ignatova M, Starbova K, Markova N, Manolova N, and Rashkov I. Electrospun nano-fi bre mats with antibacterial properties from quaternised chitosan and poly(vinyl alcohol). Carbo Res 2006;341 :2098-2107.
153. Atsushi M, Go K, Rikako K, and Junzo T. Preparation of chitosan nanofi ber tube by electrospinning. J Nanosci Nanotech 2007;7(3):852-855.
154. Murugan R, Ramakrishna S. Nano-featured scaffolds for tissue engineering:a review of spinning methodologies. Tissue Eng 2006;12 :435-447.
155. Bendix D. Chemical synthesis of polylactide and its copolymers for medical applications. Polym Degrad Stab 1998;59 :129-135.
156. Ajioka M, Enomoto K, Suzuki K, Yamaguchi A. Basic properties of polylactic acid produced by the direct condensation polymerization of lactic acid. Bull Chem Sot Jpn 1995 :68 :2125-2131.
157. Park K, Shalaby WSW, Park H. Chemically-induced degradation. Biodegradable hydrogels for drug delivery. New York :CRC Press 1993;141-152.
158. Schmitt EE, Polistina RA. Surgical sutures. US patent 3297033, 1967.
159. Boland ED, Telemeco TA, Simpson DG, Wnek GE, Bowlin GL. Utilizing acid pretreatment and electrospinning to improve biocompatibility of poly(glycolic acid) for tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res Part B:Appl Biomater 2004;71: 144-152.
160. Dong C, Duan B, Yuan X, Yao K. Electrospinning and morphology of ultrafi ne poly (D, L-lactide) fi bers. J Biomed Res 2005;22 :1245-1248.
161. Min B.M, You Y, Kim J-M, Lee SJ, Park WH. Formation of nanostructured poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)/chitin matrix and its cellular response to normal human keratinocytes and fi broblasts. Carbo Polymers 2004;57 :285-292.
162. You Y, Min B-M, Lee SJ, Lee TS, Park WH. In vitro degradation behavior of electrospun polyglycolide, polylactide, and poly(lactide-co-glycolide). J Appl Polym Sci 2005;95 :193-200.
163. Bashur CA, Dahlgren LA, Goldstein AS. Effect of fi ber diameter and orientation on fi broblast morphology and proliferation on electrospun poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) meshes. Biomaterials 2006;27 :5681-5688.
164. Weert M van de, Hennink WE, Jiskoot W. Protein instability in poly(Lactic-co-glycolic acid) microparticles. Pharm Res 2000;17(10):1159-1167.
165. Kricheldorf HR, Berl M, Scharnagl N. Poly(lactones). 9. Polymerization mechanism of metal alkoxide initiated polymerizations of lactide and various lactones. Macromolecules 1988;21 :286-293.
166. Mondrinos MJ, Dembzynski R, Lu L, Byrapogu VKC, Wootton DM, Lelkes PI, Zhou J. Porogen-based solid freeform fabrication of polycaprolactone-calcium phosphate scaffolds for tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2006;27 :4399-4408.
167. Luong-Van E, Grøndahl L, Chua KN, Leong KM, Nurcombe V, Cool SM. Controlled release of heparin from poly(e-caprolactone) electrospun fi bers. Biomaterials 2005;27: 2042-2050.
168. Lamba NMK, Woodhouse KA, Cooper SL. Polyurethanes in biomedical applications. New York :CRC Press 1998;205-241.
169. Stokes K, Cobian L. Polyether polyurethanes for implantable pacemaker leads. Biomaterials. 1982;3 :225-231.
170. Khil MS, Cha DI, Kim HY, Kim IS, Bhattarai N. Electrospun nanofi brous polyurethane membrane as wound dressing. J Biomed Mater Res B:Appl Biomater 2003; 67(2):675-679.
171. Lee IS, Kwon OH, Meng W, Kang IK, Ito Y. Nanofabrication of microbial polyester by electrospinning promotes cell attachment. Macromol Res 2004;12 :374-378.
172. Park KE, Jung SY, Lee SJ, Min BM, Park WH. Biomimetic nanofi brous scaffolds: Preparation and characterization of chitin/silk fi broin blend nanofi bers. Int J Biol Macromol 2006;38 :165-173.
173. Zong X, Li S, Chen E, Garlick B, Kim KS, Fang D, Chiu J, Zimmerman T, Brathwaite C, Hsiao BS, Chu B. Prevention of postsurgery-induced abdominal adhesions by electrospun bioabsorbable nanofi brous poly(lactide-co-glycolide) based membranes. Ann Surg 2004;240 :910-915.
174. Mo XM, Xu CY, Kotaki M, Ramakrishna S. Electrospun (PLLA-CL) nanofi ber:a biomimetic extracellular matrix for smooth muscle cell and endothelial cell proliferation. Biomaterials 2004;25 :1883-1890.
175. Li M, Mondrinos MJ, Chen X, Lelkes PI. Electrospun blends of natural and synthetic polymers as scaffolds for tissue engineering. Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE. Engineering in medicine and biology 27 th annual conference. 5858-5861.
176. Kim CW, Kim DS, Kang SY, Marquez M, Joo YL. Structural studies of electrospun cellulose nanofi bers. Polymer 2006;47(14):5097-5107.
177. Min BM, Lee SW, Lim JN, You Y, Lee TS, Kang PH, Park WH. Chitin and chitosan nanofi bers:electrospinning of chitin and deacetylation of chitin nanofi bers. Polymer 2004;45 :7137-7142.
178. Bhattarai N, Edmondson D, Veiseh O, Matsen FA, Zhang M. Electrospun chitosan-based nanofi bers and their cellular compatibility. Biomaterials 2005;26 :6176-6184.
179. Subramanian A, Vu D, Larsen GF, Lin HY. Preparation and evaluation of the electrospun chitosan/PEO fi bers for potential applications in cartilage tissue engineering. J Biomater Sci 2005;16(7):861-873.
180. Martino AD, Sittinger M, Makar and V, Risbud. Chitosan :A versatile biopolymer for orthopaedic tissue-engineering. Biomaterials 2005;26 :5983-5990.
181. Rho KS, Jeong L, Lee G, Seo BM, Park YJ, Hong SD, Roh S, Cho JJ, Park WH, Min BM. Electrospinning of collagen nanofi bers:Effects on the behavior of normal human keratinocytes and early-stage wound healing. Biomaterials 2006;27 :1452-1461.
182. Huang L, Nagapudi K, Apkarian RP, Chaikof EL. Engineered collagen-PEO nanofi bers and fabrics. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 2001;12(9):979-993.
183. Li M, Guo Y, Wei Y, Macdiarmid AG, Lelkes PI. Electrospinning polyaniline-contained gelatin nanofi bers for tissue engineering applications. Biomaterials 2006; 27 :2705-2715.
184. Kwon OH, Lee IS, Ko YG, Meng W, Jung KH, Kang IK, Ito Y. Electrospinning of microbial polyester for cell culture. Biomed Mater 2007;2 :52-58.
185. Jeong L, Lee KY, Liu JW, Park WH. Time-resolved structural investigation of regenerated silk fi broin nanofi bers treated with solvent vapor. Int J Biol Macromol 2006;38: 140-144.
186. Miyoshi T, Toyohara K, Minematsu H. Preparation of ultrafi ne fi brous zein membranes via electrospinning. Polym Int 2005;54(8):1187-1190.
187. Kenawy ER, Layman JM, Watkins JR, Bowlin GL, Matthews JA, Simpson DG, Wnek GE. Electrospinning of poly(ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol) fi bers. Biomaterials 2003; 24 :907-913.
188. Bhowmick S, Fowler A, Warner SB, Toner M. Bio-active bandages. NTC Project 2005 :F03-MD15.
189. Van LE, Grondahl L, Chua KN, Leong KW, Nurcombe V, Cool SM. Controlled release of heparin from poly(e-caprolactone) electrospun fi bers. Biomaterials 2006; 27 :2042-2050.
190. Teo WE, Kotaki M, Mo XM, Ramakrishna S. Porous tubular structures with controlled fi bre orientation using a modifi ed electrospinning method. Nanotechnology 2005;16 :918-924.
191. Bolgen N, Menceloglu YZ, Acatay K, Vargel I, Piskin E. In vitro and in vivo degradation of non-woven materials made of poly (epsilon-caprolactone) nanofi bers prepared by electrospinning under different conditions. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 2005;16 :1537-1555.
192. Khil MS, Bhattarai SR, Kim HY, Kim SZ, Lee KH. Novel fabricated matrix via electrospinning for tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res Part B:Appl Biomater 2004;72(1):117-124.
193. Li WJ, Cooper JA Jr, Mauck RL, Tuan RS. Fabrication and characterization of six electrospun poly(a-hydroxy ester)-based fi brous scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. Acta Biomater 2006;2(4):377-385.
194. Deitzel JM, Kleinmeyer JD, Hirvonen JK, Tan NCB. Controlled deposition of electrospun poly(ethylene oxide) fi bers. Polymer 2001;42 :8163-8170.
195. Casper CL, Yamaguchi N, Kiick KL, Rabolt JF. Functionalizing electrospun fi bers with biologically relevant macromolecules. Biomacromolecule 2005;6(4):1998-2007.
196. Bhattacharyya S, Lakshmi S, Bender J, Greish YE, Brown PW, Allcock HR, Laurencin CT. Preparation of poly [bis(carboxylatophenoxy) phosphazene] non-woven nanofi ber mats by electrospinning. Mat Res Soc Symp Proc 2004; Vol. EXS-1.
197. Park KE, Kang HK, Lee SJ, Min BM, Park WH. Biomimetic nanofi brous scaffolds: preparation and characterization of PGA/chitin blend nanofi bers. Biomacromolecule 2006;7(2):635-643.
198. Bhattarai SR, Bhattarai N, Viswanathamurthi P, Yi HK, Hwang PH, Kim HY. Hydrophilic nanofi brous structure of polylactide; fabrication and cell affi nity. J Biomed Mater Res Part A 2006;78(2):247-257.
199. He W, Yong T, Teo WE, Zuwei, Ramakrishna S. Fabrication and endothelialization of collagen-blended biodegradable polymer nanofi bers:potential vascular graft for blood vessel tissue engineering. Tissue Eng 2005;11(9/10):1574-1588.
200. Stitzel J, Liu J, Lee SJ, Komura M, Berry J, Soker S, Lim G, Dyke MV, Czerw R, Yoo JJ, Atala A. Controlled fabrication of a biological vascular substitute. Biomaterials 2006;27 :1088-1094.
201. Luu YK, Kim K, Hsiao BS, Chu B, Hadjiargyrou M. Development of a nanostructured DNA delivery scaffold via electrospinning of PLGA and PLA-PEG block copolymers. J Control Rel 2003;89 :341-353.
202. Pan H, Li L, Hu L, Cui X. Continuous aligned polymer fi bers produced by a modifi ed electrospinning method. Polymer 2006;47(14):4901-4904.
203. Rothman HR, Freeman MAR. The bone and joint decade 2000-2010 For prevention and treatment of musculoskeletal disease. J Arthoplast 1999;14(8).
204. Hart LE. Physical Activity and Risk of Musculoskeletal Injury. Clin J Sport Med 2002;12(3):196-197.
205. Krug EG, Sharma GK, and Lozano R. The global burden of injuries. Am J Public Health 2000;90(4):523-526.
206. Katz SI. Boning up for health:The national bone and joint decade. J Bone Min Res 2004;19(10).
207. Weinstein SL. 2000-2010:the bone and joint decade. J Bone Joint Surg 2000;82 :1-3 (Editorial.) 208.
208. Yelin E, Herrndorf A, Trupin L, Sonneborn D. A national study of medical care expenditures for musculoskeletal conditions:The impact of health insurance and managed care. Arth Rheum 2001;44(5):1160-1169.
209. Spiegel DA, Gosselin RA, Coughlin RR, Joshipura M, Browner BD, and Dormans JP. The burden of musculoskeletal injury in low and middle-income countries:challenges and opportunities. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2008;90(4):915-923.
210. Gauthy R. Musculoskeletal disorders:Where we are, and where we could be. HESA newsletter 2005;27 :22-27.
211. Roberts SJ, Howard D, Buttery LD, and Shakesheff KM. Clinical applications of musculoskeletal tissue engineering. Br Med Bull 2008 (ahead of print).
212. Sommerfeldt DW, Rubin CT. Biology of bone and how it orchestrates the form and function of the skeleton. Eur Spine J 2001;10 :S86-S95.
213. Praemer A, Furner S, Rice DP. Musculoskeletal Conditions in the United States. Rosemont, IL, Am Acad Ortho Surg 1999;107-117.
214. Perry CR. Bone repair techniques, bone graft, and bone graft substitutes. Clin Orthop Rel Res 1999;360 :71-86.
215. Salgado AJ, Coutinho OP, Reis RL. Bone Tissue Engineering:State of the art and future trends. Macromol Biosci 2004;4 :743-765.
216. Lu L, Currier BL, Yaszemski MJ. Synthetic bone substitutes. Curr Opin Orthop 2000;11 :383-390.
217. El-amin SF, Lu HH, Khan Y, Burems J, Mitchell J, Tuan RS, Laurencin RS. Extracellular matrix production by human osteoblasts cultured on biodegradable polymers applicable for tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2003;24 :1213-1221.
218. Petite H, Viateau V, Bensa Ïd W, Meunier A, Pollak C, Bourguignon M, Oudina K, Sedel L, Guillemin G. Tissue-engineered bone regeneration. Nat Biotech 2000;18: 959-963.
219. Krebsbach PH, Kuznetsov SA, Satomura K, Emmons, RV, Rowe DW, Robey PG. Bone formation in vivo :comparison of osteogenesis by transplanted mouse and human marrow stromal fi broblasts. Transplantation 1997;63(8):1059-1069.
220. Sun JS, Wu HYH, Lin FH. The role of muscle-derived stem cells in bone tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2005;26 :3953-3960.
221. Katagiri T, Yamaguchi A, Komaki M, Abe E, Takahashi N, Ikeda T, Rosen V, Wozney JM, Fujisawa-sehara A, Suda T. Bone morphogenetic protein-2 converts the differentiation pathway of C2C12 myoblasts into the osteoblast lineage. J Cell Biol 1994;127(6):1755-1766.
222. Lu HH, Kofron MD, El-amin SF, Attawia MA, Laurencin CT. In vitro bone formation using muscle-derived cells:a new paradigm for bone tissue engineering using polymer-bone morphogenetic protein matrices. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2003;305 :882-889.
223. Weinzierl K, Hemprich A, Frerich B. Bone engineering with adipose tissue derived stromal cells. J Cranio-Maxillofacial Surg 2006;34 :466-471.
224. Dragoo JS, Choi JY, Lieberman JR, Huang H, Zuk PA, Zhang J, Hedrick MH, Benhaim P. Bone induction by BMP-2 transduced stem cells derived from human fat. J Orthop Res 2003;21 :622-629.
225. Scheer M, Richter I, Neugebauer J, Arnhold S. Bone tissue engineering from mesenchymal stem cells derived from human pulp tissue. J Cranio-Maxillofacial Surg 2006;34 Suppl. S1Abstracts, EACFMS XVIII Congress.
226. Kim HW, Kim HE. Nanofi ber generation of hydroxyapatite and fl uor-hydroxyapatite bioceramics. J Biomed Mater Res Part B:Appl Biomater 2006;77 :323-328.
227. Yoshimoto H, Shin YM, Terai H, Vacanti JP. A biodegradable nanofi ber scaffold by electrospinning and its potential for bone tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2003; 24 :2077-2082.
228. Venugopal J, Vadgama P, SampathKumar TS, Ramakrishna S. Biocomposite nanofi-bres and osteoblasts for bone tissue engineering. Nanotechnology 2007;18 :1-8.
229. Catledge SA, Clem WC, Shrikishen N, Chowdhury S, Stanishevsky AV, Koopman M, Vohra YK. An electrospun triphasic nanofi brous scaffold for bone tissue engineering. Biomed Mater 2007;2 :142-150.
230. Fujihara K, Kotaki M, Ramakrishna S. Guided bone regeneration membrane made of polycaprolactone/calcium carbonate composite nano-fi bers. Biomaterials 2005;26: 4139-4147.
231. Wutticharoenmongkol P, Sanchavanakit N, Pavasant P, Supaphol P. Preparation and characterization of novel bone scaffolds based on electrospun polycaprolactone fi bers fi lled with nanoparticles. Macromol Biosci 2006;6 :70-77.
232. Sakai S, Yamada Y, Yamaguchi T, Kawakami K. Prospective use of electrospun ultra-fi ne silicate fi bers for bone tissue engineering. Biotechnol J 2006;1 :958-962.
233. Kim HW, Lee HH, Knowles JC. Electrospinning biomedical nanocomposite fi bers of hydroxyapaite/poly(lactic acid) for bone regeneration. J Biomed Mater Res 2006; 79 :643-649.
234. Spasova M, Stoilova O, Manolova N, Rashkov I. Preparation of PLLA/PEG nanofi-bers by electrospinning and potential applications. J Bioact Comp Poly 2007;22: 62-76.
235. Shin M, Yoshimoto H, Vacanti JP. In vivo bone tissue engineering using mesenchymal stem cells on a novel electrospun nanofi brous scaffold. Tissue Eng 2004;10(1/2): 33-41.
236. Benedek TG. A history of the understanding of cartilage. Osteoarthritis and cartilage 2006;14 :203-209.
237. Calandruccio RA, Gilmer WA Jr. Proliferation, Regeneration, and Repair of Articular Cartilage of Immature Animals. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1962;44 :431-455.
238. Eyre DR, Muir H. The distribution of different molecular species of collagen in fi brous, elastic and hyaline cartilages of the pig. Biochem J 1975;151(3):595-602.
239. Anthony A, Lanza R. Methods of tissue engineering. San Diego :Academic Press 2002. p 1027-1040.
240. O'driscoll WS. The healing and regeneration of articular cartilage. J Bone Joint Surg 1998;80-A(12):1795-1812.
241. March LM, Cross MJ, Lapsley H, Brnabic AJM, Tribe KL, Bachmeier CJM, Courtney BG, Brooks PM. Outcomes after hip or knee replacement surgery for osteoarthritis: A prospective cohort study comparing patients'quality of life before and after surgery with age-related population norms. Med J Australia 1999;171 :235-238.
242. Katz J. Total joint replacement in osteoarthritis. Best Prac Res Clin Rheumatol 2003;20(1):145-153.
243. Hunziker EB. Articular cartilage repair:are the intrinsic biological constraints undermining this process insuperable? Osteoarth Cart 1999;7 :15-28.
244. Fodor WL. Tissue engineering and cell based therapies, from the bench to the clinic: The potential to replace, repair and regenerate. Rep Biol Endocrinol 2003;1: 102-107.
245. Freed LE, Grande DA, Lingbin Z, Emmanual J, Marquis JC, Langer R. Joint resurfacing using allograft chondrocytes and synthetic biodegradable polymer scaffolds. J Biomed Mater Res. 1994;28 :891-899.
246. Grande DA, Southerland SS, Manji R, Pate DW, Schwartz RE, Lucas PA. Repair of Articular Cartilage Defects Using Mesenchymal Stem Cells. Tissue Eng 1995;1(4):345-353.
247. Ahmed N, Stanford WL, Kandel RA. Mesenchymal stem and progenitor cells for cartilage repair. Skel Radiol. 2007;36(10):909-912.
248. Fibbe WE. Mesenchymal stem cells. A potential source for skeletal repair. Ann Rheum Dis 2002;61(2):29-31.
249. Caplan IA, Bruder PS. Mesenchymal stem cells:building blocks for molecular medicine in the 21st century. Trends Mol Med 2001;7(6):259-264.
250. Bayliss MT, Venn M, Maroudas A, Ali SY. Structure of proteoglycans from different layers of human articular cartilage. Biochem J 1983;209(2):387-400.
251. Li JW, Jiang YJ, Tuan RS. Chondrocyte phenotype in engineered fi brous matrix is regulated by fi ber size. Tissue Eng 2006;12(7):1775-1785.
252. Subramanian A, Vu D, Larsen GF, Lin HY. Preparation and evaluation of the electrospun chitosan/PEO fi bers for potential applications in cartilage tissue engineering. J Biomater Sci 2005;16(7):861-873.
253. Shin HJ, Lee CH, Cho IH, Kim YJ, Lee YJ, Kim IA, Park KD, Yui N, Shin JW. Electrospun PLGA nanofi ber scaffolds for articular cartilage reconstruction:mechanical stability, degradation and cellular responses under mechanical stimulation in vitro. J Biomater Sci Polym Edn 2006;17(1-2):103-119.
254. Li JW, Danielson KG, Alexander PG, Tuan RS. Biological response of chondrocytes cultured in three-dimensional nanofi brous poly(e-caprolactone) scaffolds. J Biomed Mater Res Part A 2003;67(4):1105-1114.
255. Li JW, Tuli R, Okafor C, Derfoul A, Danielson KG, Hall DJ, Tuan RS. A three-dimensional nanofi brous scaffold for cartilage tissue engineering using human mesenchymal stem cells. Biomaterials 2005;26 :599-609.
256. Velleman SG. Role of the extracellular matrix in muscle growth and development.
257. Bach AD, Stem-straeter J, Beier JP, Bannasch H, Stark GB. Engineering of muscle tissue. Clin Plast Surg 2003;30 :589-599.
258. Mauro A. Satellite cells of skeletal muscle fi bers. J Biochem Biophys Cytol 1961;9 :493-498.
259. Montarras D, Morgan J, Collins C, Relaix F, Zaffran S, Cumano A, Partridge T, Buckingham M. Direct isolation of satellite cells for skeletal muscle regeneration. Science 2005;209 :2064-2067.
260. Peng H, Huard J. Muscle derived stem cells for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration and repair. Trans Immunol 2004;12 :311-319.
261. Saxena AK, Marler J, Benvenuto M, Willital GH, Vacanti JP. Skeletal muscle tissue engineering using isolated myoblasts on synthetic biodegradable polymers:Preliminary studies. Tissue Eng 1999;5(6):525-531.
262. Bach AD, Beier JP, Staeter JS, Horch RE. Skeletal muscle tissue engineering. J Cell Mol Med 2004;8(4):413-422.
263. Levenberg S, Rouwkema J, Macdonald M, Garfein ES, Kohane DS, Darland DC, Marini, van Blitterswijk CA, Mulligan RC, D'Amore PA, Langer R. Engineering vascularized skeletal muscle tissue. Nat Biotech 2005;23 :879-884.
264. Saxena AK, Willital GH, Vacanti JP. Vascularized three-dimensional skeletal muscle tissue-engineering. Biomed Mater Eng 2001;11 :275-281.
265. Wachem PB van, Brouwer LA, Luyn MJA Van. Absence of muscle regeneration after implantation of a collagen matrix seeded with myoblasts. Biomaterials 1999;20: 419-426.
266. Dennis RG, Kosnik P. Excitability and isometric contractile properties of mammalian skeletal muscle constructs engineered in vitro. Cell Dev Biol Animal 2000;36 :327-335.
267. Neumann T, Hauschika SD, Sanders JE. Tissue engineering of skeletal muscle using polymer fi ber arrays. Tissue Eng 2003;9(5):995-1003.
268. Woo SLY, Thomas M, Saw SSC. Contribution of biomechanics, orthopaedics and rehabilitation:The past, present and future. Surg J R Coll Surg Edinb Irel 2004 :25-136.
269. Duthon VB, Barea C, Abrassart S, Fasel JH, Fritschy D, Menetrey J. Anatomy of the anterior cruciate ligament. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2006;14 :204-213.
270. Ikada Y. Animal and human trials of engineered tissue. In:Tissue Engineering:Fundamentals and applications By Ikada Y. Academic Press, 2006 :129-137.
271. Goh JCH, Ouyang HW, Teoh SH, Chan CKC, Lee EH. Tissue-engineering approach to the repair and regeneration of tendons and ligaments. Tissue Eng 2003;9(1):S31-S44.
272. Doroski DM, Brink KS, Temenoff JS. Techniques for biological characterization of tissue-engineered tendon and ligament. Biomaterials 2007;28 :187-202.
273. Gouelt F, Rancourt D, Cloutier R, Germain L, Poole AR, Auger FA. Tendons and ligaments. In:Lanza RP, Langer R, Vacanti J, editor. Principles of tissue Engineering. San Diego :Acad e mic Press 2000;711-722.
274. Freeman JW, Woods MD, Laurencin CT. Tissue engineering of the anterior cruciate ligament using abraid twist scaffold design. J Biomech 2007;40 :2029-2036.
275. Vunjak-novakovic G, Altman G, Horan R, Kaplan DL. Tissue Engineering of Ligaments. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 2004;6 :131-56.
276. Amiel D, Frank C, Harwood FL, Fronek J, Akeson WH. Tendons and ligaments:a morphological and biochemical comparison. J Orthop Res 1984;1 :257-265.
277. Woo SLY, Debski RE, Zeminsk J, Abramowitch SD, Chansaw SS, Fenwick JA. Injury and repair of ligaments and tendons. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 2000;2 :83-118.
278. Milz S, Aktas T, Putz R, Benjamin M. Expression of extracellular matrix molecules typical of articular cartilage in the human scapholunate interosseous ligament. J Anatomy 2006;208(6):671-679.
279. Kannus P, J Ä Rvinen M. Posttraumatic anterior cruciate ligament insuffi ciency as a cause of osteoarthritis in a knee joint. Clin Rheumatol 1989;8 :251-260.
280. Lohmander SL, Englund PM, Dahl LL, Roos EM. The long-term consequence of anterior cruciate ligament and meniscus injuries:osteoarthritis. Am J Sports Med 2007;35(10):1756-1769.
281. Martha MM, Spindler PK. Anterior cruciate ligament healing and repair. Sport Med Anthro Rev 2005;13(3):151-155.
282. Spindler KP, Kuhn JE, Freedman KB, Matthews CE, Dittus RS, Harrell FE Jr. Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction autograft choice:bone-tendon-bone versus hamstring:does it really matter A systematic review. Am J Sports Med 2004;32 :1986-1995.
283. Lin VS, Lee MC, O'neal S, Mckean J, Sung KLP. Ligament tissue engineering using synthetic biodegradable fiber scaffolds. Tissue Eng 1999;5(5):443-451.
284. Tang JB. Tendon injuries across the world:treatment. Injury, 2006;37 :1036-1042.
285. Woo SLY, Abramowitch SD, Kilger R, Liang R. Biomechanics of knee ligaments: injury, healing, and repair. J Biomech 2006;39 :1-20.
286. Van EF, Saris DB, Riesle J, Willems WJ, Van Blitterswijk CA, Verbout AJ, Dhert WJ. Tissue engineering of ligaments:a comparison of bone marrow stromal cells, anterior cruciate ligament, and skin fi broblasts as cell source. Tissue Eng 2004;10(5-6):893-903.
287. Tuan RS, Boland G, Tuli R. Adult mesenchymal stem cells and cell- based tissue engineering. Arth Res Ther 2002;5(1):32-45.
288. Watanabe N, Woo SLY, Papageorgiou C, Celechovsky C, Takai S. Fate of donor bone marrow cells in medial collateral ligament after simulated autologous transplantation. Microsc Res Tech 2002;58 :39-44.
289. Ge Z, Yang F, Goh JCH, Ramakrishna S, Lee EH. Biomaterials and scaffolds for ligament tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res 2006;77 :639-652.
290. Courtney T, Sacks MS, Stankus J, Guan J, Wagner WR. Design and analysis of tissue engineering scaffolds that mimic soft tissue mechanical anisotropy. Biomaterials 2006;27 :3631-3638.
291. Bashur CA, Guelcher SA, Goldstein AS. Electrospun polymers for ligament tissue engineering. Proceedings of the IEEE 32nd Annual Northeast 2006.
292. Spalazzi JP, Doty SB, Moffat KL, Levine W, Lu HL. Development of controlled matrix heterogeneity on a triphasic scaffold for orthopedic interface tissue engineering. Tissue Eng 2006;12(12):3497-3508.
293. Huang D, Balian G, Chhabra A. Tendon Tissue Engineering and Gene Transfer:The Future of Surgical Treatment. J Hand Surg 2006;31(5):693-704.