The genetic basis for survivorship in coronary artery disease

Frontiers in Genetics

Volumn 4, Issue SEP, 2013, Pages

  Dungan, Jennifer R ^a   Hauser, Elizabeth R ^b,c   Qin, Xuejun ^b   Kraus, William E ^b  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b DUKE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c DURHAM VA MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Atherosclerosis; Cardioprotection; Coronary artery disease; LSAMP gene; Novel phenotype; Survival; Survivorship

Indexed keywords

EID: 84886007680     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16648021     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2013.00191     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. Anderson, C. D., Nalls, M. A., Biffi, A., Rost, N. S., Greenberg, S. M., Singleton, A. B., et al. (2011). The effect of survival bias on case-control genetic association studies of highly lethal diseases. Circ. Cardiovasc. Genet. 4, 188-196. doi:10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.110.957928.
2. Aouizerat, B. E., Vittinghoff, E., Musone, S. L., Pawlikowska, L., Kwok, P. Y., Olgin, J. E., et al. (2011). GWAS for discovery and replication of genetic loci associated with sudden cardiac arrest in patients with coronary artery disease. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord. 11:29. doi:10.1186/1471-2261-11-29.
3. Arking, D. E., Becker, D. M., Yanek, L. R., Fallin, D., Judge, D. P., Moy, T. F., et al. (2003). KLOTHO allele status and the risk of early-onset occult coronary artery disease. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 72, 1154-1161. doi:10.1086/375035.
4. Arking, D. E., and Sotoodehnia, N. (2012). The genetics of sudden cardiac death. Annu. Rev. Genomics Hum. Genet. 13, 223-239. doi:10.1146/annurev-genom-090711-163841.
5. Berenson, G. S., Srinivasan, S. R., Bao, W., Newman, W. P. 3rd., Tracy, R. E., and Wattigney, W. A. (1998). Association between multiple cardiovascular risk factors and atherosclerosis in children and young adults. The Bogalusa Heart Study. N. Engl. J. Med. 338, 1650-1656. doi:10.1056/NEJM199806043382302.
6. Bergman, A., Atzmon, G., Ye, K., Maccarthy, T., and Barzilai, N. (2007). Buffering mechanisms in aging:a systems approach toward uncovering the genetic component of aging. PLoS Comput. Biol. 3:e170. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.0030170.
7. Cassidy-Bushrow, A. E., Bielak, L. F., Sheedy, P. F. 2nd., Turner, S. T., Kullo, I. J., Lin, X., et al. (2007). Coronary artery calcification progression is heritable. Circulation 116, 25-31. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.658583.
8. Cayla, G., Hulot, J. S., O'connor, S. A., Pathak, A., Scott, S. A., Gruel, Y., et al. (2011). Clinical, angiographic, and genetic factors associated with early coronary stent thrombosis. JAMA 306, 1765-1774. doi:10.1001/jama.2011.1529.
9. Connelly, J. J., Wang, T., Cox, J. E., Haynes, C., Wang, L., Shah, S. H., et al. (2006). GATA2 is associated with familial early-onset coronary artery disease. PLoS Genet. 2:e139. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020139.
10. Crosslin, D. R., Shah, S. H., Nelson, S. C., Haynes, C. S., Connelly, J. J., Gadson, S., et al. (2009). Genetic effects in the leukotriene biosynthesis pathway and association with atherosclerosis. Hum. Genet. 125, 217-229. doi:10.1007/s00439-008-0619-0.
11. Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration, Sarwar, N., Gao, P., Seshasai, S. R., Gobin, R., Kaptoge, S., et al. (2010). Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease:a collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies. Lancet 375, 2215-2222. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60484-9.
12. Fortin, D. F., Califf, R. M., Pryor, D. B., and Mark, D. B. (1995). The way of the future redux. Am. J. Cardiol. 76, 1177-1182. doi:10.1016/S0002-9149(99)80331-2.
13. Fox, C. S., Polak, J. F., Chazaro, I., Cupples, A., Wolf, P. A., D'agostino, R. A., et al. (2003). Genetic and environmental contributions to atherosclerosis phenotypes in men and women:heritability of carotid intima-media thickness in the Framingham Heart Study. Stroke 34, 397-401. doi:10.1161/01.STR.0000048214056981.6F.
14. Fox, E. R., Benjamin, E. J., Sarpong, D. F., Rotimi, C. N., Wilson, J. G., Steffes, M. W., et al. (2008). Epidemiology, heritability, and genetic linkage of C-reactive protein in African Americans (from the Jackson Heart Study). Am. J. Cardiol. 102, 835-841. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2008.05.049.
15. Fraley, A. E., and Tsimikas, S. (2006). Clinical applications of circulating oxidized low-density lipoprotein biomarkers in cardiovascular disease. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 17, 502-509. doi:10.1097/01.mol.0000245255.40634.b5.
16. Galkina, E., and Ley, K. (2007). Vascular adhesion molecules in atherosclerosis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 27, 2292-2301. doi:10.1161/ATVBAHA.107.149179.
17. Grimaldi, M. P., Candore, G., Vasto, S., Caruso, M., Caimi, G., Hoffmann, E., et al. (2006). Role of the pyrin M694V (A2080G) allele in acute myocardial infarction and longevity:a study in the Sicilian population. J. Leukoc. Biol. 79, 611-615. doi:10.1189/jlb.0705416.
18. Hartiala, O., Magnussen, C. G., Kajander, S., Knuuti, J., Ukkonen, H., Saraste, A., et al. (2012). Adolescence risk factors are predictive of coronary artery calcification at middle age:the cardiovascular risk in young Finns study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 60, 1364-1370. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2012.05.045.
19. Hauser, E. R., Crossman, D. C., Granger, C. B., Haines, J. L., Jones, C. J., Mooser, V., et al. (2004). A genomewide scan for early-onset coronary artery disease in 438 families:the GENECARD Study. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 75, 436-447. doi:10.1086/423900.
20. Herman, C. R., Gill, H. K., Eng, J., and Fajardo, L. L. (2002). Screening for preclinical disease:test and disease characteristics. AJR. Am. J. Roentgenol. 179, 825-831. doi:10.2214/ajr.179.4.1790825.
21. IBC 50K CAD Consortium. (2011). Large-scale gene-centric analysis identifies novel variants for coronary artery disease. PLoS Genet. 7:e1002260. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002260.
22. Johnson, C. O., Lemaitre, R. N., Fahrenbruch, C. E., Hesselson, S., Sotoodehnia, N., McKnight, B., et al. (2012). Common variation in fatty acid genes and resuscitation from sudden cardiac arrest. Circ. Cardiovasc. Genet. 5, 422-429. doi:10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.111.961912.
23. Kong, D. F., Lee, K. L., Harrell, F. E. Jr., Boswick, J. M., Mark, D. B., Hlatky, M. A., et al. (1989). Clinical experience and predicting survival in coronary disease. Arch. Intern. Med. 149, 1177-1181. doi:10.1001/archinte.1989.00390050133027.
24. Kral, B. G., Mathias, R. A., Suktitipat, B., Ruczinski, I., Vaidya, D., Yanek, L. R., et al. (2011). A common variant in the CDKN2B gene on chromosome 9p21 protects against coronary artery disease in Americans of African ancestry. J. Hum. Genet. 56, 224-229. doi:10.1038/jhg.2010.171.
25. Kuhl, J. T., Moller, J. E., Kristensen, T. S., Kelbaek, H., and Kofoed, K. F. (2011). Left atrial function and mortality in patients with NSTEMI an MDCT study. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 4, 1080-1087. doi:10.1016/j.jcmg.2011.08.008.
26. Kukreja, R. C., Yin, C., and Salloum, F. N. (2011). MicroRNAs:new players in cardiac injury and protection. Mol. Pharmacol. 80, 558-564. doi:10.1124/mol.111.073528.
27. Kulminski, A. M., Culminskaya, I., Ukraintseva, S. V., Arbeev, K. G., Arbeeva, L., Wu, D., et al. (2011). Trade-offin the effects of the apolipoprotein E polymorphism on the ages at onset of CVD and cancer influences human lifespan. Aging Cell 10, 533-541. doi:10.1111/j.1474-9726.2011.00689.x.
28. Lange, L. A., Burdon, K., Langefeld, C. D., Liu, Y., Beck, S. R., Rich, S. S., et al. (2006). Heritability and expression of C-reactive protein in type 2 diabetes in the Diabetes Heart Study. Ann. Hum. Genet. 70, 717-725. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2006.00280.x.
29. Lee, K., Sung, J., Lee, S. C., Park, S. W., Kim, Y. S., Lee, J. Y., et al. (2012). Segment-specific carotid intima-media thickness and cardiovascular risk factors in Koreans:the Healthy Twin Study. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol. 19, 1161-1172. doi:10.1177/1741826711422763.
30. Lobato, R. L., White, W. D., Mathew, J. P., Newman, M. F., Smith, P. K., McCants, C. B., et al. (2011). Thrombomodulin gene variants are associated with increased mortality after coronary artery bypass surgery in replicated analyses. Circulation 124, S143-148. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.008334.
31. Loria, C. M., Liu, K., Lewis, C. E., Hulley, S. B., Sidney, S., Schreiner, P. J., et al. (2007). Early adult risk factor levels and subsequent coronary artery calcification:the CARDIA Study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 49, 2013-2020. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2007.03.009.
32. MacGregor, A. J., Gallimore, J., Spector, T. D., and Pepys, M. B. (1999). Genetic factors determine baseline levels of C-reactive protein and serum amyloid A. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 58, 43.
33. MacKness, B., Hunt, R., Durrington, P. N., and Mackness, M. I. (1997). Increased immunolocalization of paraoxonase, clusterin, and apolipoprotein A-I in the human artery wall with the progression of atherosclerosis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 17, 1233-1238. doi:10.1161/01.ATV.17.7.1233.
34. McGovern, P. G., Jacobs, D. R. Jr., Shahar, E., Arnett, D. K., Folsom, A. R., Blackburn, H., et al. (2001). Trends in acute coronary heart disease mortality, morbidity, and medical care from 1985 through 1997:the Minnesota heart survey. Circulation 104, 19-24. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.104.1.19.
35. McMahan, C. A., Gidding, S. S., Malcom, G. T., Tracy, R. E., Strong, J. P., McGill, H. C. Jr., et al. (2006). Pathobiological determinants of atherosclerosis in youth risk scores are associated with early and advanced atherosclerosis. Pediatrics 118, 1447-1455. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-0970.
36. Messadi-Laribi, E., Griol-Charhbili, V., Gaies, E., Vincent, M. P., Heudes, D., Meneton, P., et al. (2008). Cardioprotection and kallikrein-kinin system in acute myocardial ischaemia in mice. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 35, 489-493. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1681.2008.04902.x.
37. Morgan, T. M., House, J. A., Cresci, S., Jones, P., Allayee, H., Hazen, S. L., et al. (2011). Investigation of 95 variants identified in a genome-wide study for association with mortality after acute coronary syndrome. BMC Med. Genet. 12:127. doi:10.1186/1471-2350-12-127.
38. Morgan, T. M., Xiao, L., Lyons, P., Kassebaum, B., Krumholz, H. M., and Spertus, J. A. (2008). Investigation of 89 candidate gene variants for effects on all-cause mortality following acute coronary syndrome. BMC Med. Genet. 9:66. doi:10.1186/1471-2350-9-66.
39. Movahed, M. R., and Sattur, S. (2010). Low ejection fraction documented during cardiac catheterization is significantly associated with long-term, all-cause mortality. Cardiovasc. Revasc. Med. 11, 163-166. doi:10.1016/j.carrev.2009.04.110.
40. Muehlschlegel, J. D., Liu, K. Y., Perry, T. E., Fox, A. A., Collard, C. D., Shernan, S. K., et al. (2010). Chromosome 9p21 variant predicts mortality after coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Circulation 122, S60-65. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.924233.
41. Mullan, F. (1985). Seasons of survival:reflections of a physician with cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 313, 270-273. doi:10.1056/NEJM198507253130421.
42. Murabito, J. M., Yuan, R., and Lunetta, K. L. (2012). The search for longevity and healthy aging genes:insights from epidemiological studies and samples of long-lived individuals. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 67, 470-479. doi:10.1093/gerona/gls089.
43. Myerburg, R. J., and Junttila, M. J. (2012). Sudden cardiac death caused by coronary heart disease. Circulation 125, 1043-1052. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.023846.
44. Naghavi, M., Falk, E., Hecht, H. S., Jamieson, M. J., Kaul, S., Berman, D., et al. (2006). From vulnerable plaque to vulnerable patient-Part III:executive summary of the Screening for Heart Attack Prevention and Education (SHAPE) Task Force report. Am. J. Cardiol. 98, 2H-15H. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.03.002.
45. Newton-Cheh, C., Cook, N. R., Vandenburgh, M., Rimm, E. B., Ridker, P. M., and Albert, C. M. (2009). A common variant at 9p21 is associated with sudden and arrhythmic cardiac death. Circulation 120, 2062-2068. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.879049.
46. Ong, S. G., and Hausenloy, D. J. (2012). Hypoxia-inducible factor as a therapeutic target for cardioprotection. Pharmacol. Ther. 136, 69-81. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2012.07.005.
47. Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM). (2011). Limbic System-Associated Membrane Protein (LSAMP). Baltimore, MD:McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University.
48. Palomaki, G. E., Melillo, S., and Bradley, L. A. (2010). Association between 9p21 genomic markers and heart disease:a meta-analysis. JAMA 303, 648-656. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.118.
49. Pankow, J. S., Folsom, A. R., Cushman, M., Borecki, I. B., Hopkins, P. N., Eckfeldt, J. H., et al. (2001). Familial and genetic determinants of systemic markers of inflammation:the NHLBI family heart study. Atherosclerosis 154, 681-689. doi:10.1016/S0021-9150(00)00586-4.
50. R Development Core Team. (2008). R:A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna:R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
51. Rampersaud, E., Bielak, L. F., Parsa, A., Shen, H., Post, W., Ryan, K. A., et al.
52. Roger, V. L., Go, A. S., Lloyd-Jones, D. M., Adams, R. J., Berry, J. D., Brown, T. M., et al. (2011). Heart disease and stroke statistics-2011 update:a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 123, e18-e209. doi:10.1161/CIR.0b013e3182009701.
53. Roger, V. L., Go, A. S., Lloyd-Jones, D. M., Benjamin, E. J., Berry, J. D., Borden, W. B., et al. (2012). Heart disease and stroke statistics-2012 update:a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 125, e2-e220. doi:10.1161/CIR.0b013e31823ac046.
54. Sacco, R. L., Blanton, S. H., Slifer, S., Beecham, A., Glover, K., Gardener, H., et al. (2009). Heritability and linkage analysis for carotid intima-media thickness:the family study of stroke risk and carotid atherosclerosis. Stroke 40, 2307-2312. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.554121.
55. Safranow, K., Rzeuski, R., Binczak-Kuleta, A., Czyzycka, E., Skowronek, J., Jakubowska, K., et al. (2007). ADA*2 allele of the adenosine deaminase gene may protect against coronary artery disease. Cardiology 108, 275-281. doi:10.1159/000099096.
56. Shah, S. H., Bain, J. R., Muehlbauer, M. J., Stevens, R. D., Crosslin, D. R., Haynes, C., et al. (2010). Association of a peripheral blood metabolic profile with coronary artery disease and risk of subsequent cardiovascular events. Circ. Cardiovasc. Genet. 3, 207-214. doi:10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.109.852814.
57. Shah, S. H., Freedman, N. J., Zhang, L., Crosslin, D. R., Stone, D. H., Haynes, C., et al. (2009). Neuropeptide Y gene polymorphisms confer risk of early-onset atherosclerosis. PLoS Genet. 5:e1000318. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000318.
58. Shah, S. H., Hauser, E. R., Crosslin, D., Wang, L., Haynes, C., Connelly, J., et al. (2008). ALOX5AP variants are associated with in-stent restenosis after percutaneous coronary intervention. Atherosclerosis 201, 148-154. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2008.01.011.
59. Shah, S. H., Kraus, W. E., Crossman, D. C., Granger, C. B., Haines, J. L., Jones, C. J., et al. (2006). Serum lipids in the GENECARD study of coronary artery disease identify quantitative trait loci and phenotypic subsets on chromosomes 3q and 5q. Ann. Hum. Genet. 70, 738-748. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2006.00288.x.
60. Shah, S. H., Sun, J. L., Stevens, R. D., Bain, J. R., Muehlbauer, M. J., Pieper, K. S., et al. (2012). Baseline metabolomic profiles predict cardiovascular events in patients at risk for coronary artery disease. Am. Heart J. 163, 844-850. e841. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2012.02.005.
61. Sutton, B. S., Crosslin, D. R., Shah, S. H., Nelson, S. C., Bassil, A., Hale, A. B., et al. (2008). Comprehensive genetic analysis of the platelet activating factor acetylhydrolase (PLA2G7) gene and cardiovascular disease in case-control and family datasets. Hum. Mol. Genet. 17, 1318-1328. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddn020.
62. Tekin, D., Dursun, A. D., and Xi, L. (2010). Hypoxia inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) and cardioprotection. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 31, 1085-1094. doi:10.1038/aps.2010.132.
63. Terry, D. F., Sebastiani, P., Andersen, S. L., and Perls, T. T. (2008). Disentangling the roles of disability and morbidity in survival to exceptional old age. Arch. Intern. Med. 168, 277-283. doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2007.75.
64. Thomas, K. L., Honeycutt, E., Shaw, L. K., and Peterson, E. D. (2010). Racial differences in long-term survival among patients with coronary artery disease. Am. Heart J. 160, 744-751. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2010.06.014.
65. Tranter, M., Ren, X., Forde, T., Wilhide, M. E., Chen, J., Sartor, M. A., et al. (2010). NF-kappaB driven cardioprotective gene programs; Hsp70.3 and cardioprotection after late ischemic preconditioning. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 49, 664-672. doi:10.1016/j.yjmcc.2010.07.001.
66. Vaccarino, V., Khan, D., Votaw, J., Faber, T., Veledar, E., Jones, D. P., et al. (2011). Inflammation is related to coronary flow reserve detected by positron emission tomography in asymptomatic male twins. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 57, 1271-1279. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2010.09.074.
67. Voora, D., and Ginsburg, G. S. (2012). Clinical application of cardiovascular pharmacogenetics. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 60, 9-20. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2012.01.067.
68. Wang, L., Hauser, E. R., Shah, S. H., Pericak-Vance, M. A., Haynes, C., Crosslin, D., et al. (2007). Peakwide mapping on chromosome 3q13 identifies the kalirin gene as a novel candidate gene for coronary artery disease. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 80, 650-663. doi:10.1086/512981.
69. Wang, L., Hauser, E. R., Shah, S. H., Seo, D., Sivashanmugam, P., Exum, S. T., et al. (2008). Polymorphisms of the tumor suppressor gene LSAMP are associated with left main coronary artery disease. Ann. Hum. Genet. 72, 443-453. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2008.00433.x.
70. Wang, T. Y., Newby, L. K., Chen, A. Y., Mulgund, J., Roe, M. T., Sonel, A. F., et al. (2009). Hypercholesterolemia paradox in relation to mortality in acute coronary syndrome. Clin. Cardiol. 32, E22-E28. doi:10.1002/clc.20518.
71. Weng, Y. J., Hsieh, D. J., Kuo, W. W., Lai, T. Y., Hsu, H. H., Tsai, C. H., et al. (2010). E4BP4 is a cardiac survival factor and essential for embryonic heart development. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 340, 187-194. doi:10.1007/s11010-010-0417-6.
72. Westaway, S. K., Reinier, K., Huertas-Vazquez, A., Evanado, A., Teodorescu, C., Navarro, J., et al. (2011). Common variants in CASQ2, GPD1L, and NOS1AP are significantly associated with risk of sudden death in patients with coronary artery disease. Circ. Cardiovasc. Genet. 4, 397-402. doi:10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.111.959916.
73. Whang, W., Shimbo, D., Kronish, I. M., Duvall, W. L., Julien, H., Iyer, P., et al. (2010). Depressive symptoms and all-cause mortality in unstable angina pectoris (from the Coronary Psychosocial Evaluation Studies [COPES]). Am. J. Cardiol. 106, 1104-1107. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2010.06.015.
74. Wilhide, M. E., Tranter, M., Ren, X., Chen, J., Sartor, M. A., Medvedovic, M., et al. (2011). Identification of a NF-kappaB cardioprotective gene program:NF-kappaB regulation of Hsp70.1 contributes to cardioprotection after permanent coronary occlusion. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 51, 82-89. doi:10.1016/j.yjmcc.2011.03.011.
75. Xu, X., Wang, L., Xu, C., Zhang, P., Yong, F., Liu, H., et al. (2013). Variations in matrix metalloproteinase-1,-3, and-9 genes and the risk of acute coronary syndrome and coronary artery disease in the Chinese Han population. Coron. Artery Dis. 19, 227-230. doi:10.1097/MCA.0b013e32835ea3af.
76. Yoo, S. Y., Kim, J., Cheong, S., Shin, D. H., Jang, J., Lee, C., et al. (2012). Rho-associated kinase 2 polymorphism in patients with vasospastic angina. Korean Circ. J. 42, 406-413. doi:10.4070/kcj.2012.42.6.406.
77. Zebrack, B. J. (2000). Cancer survivor identity and quality of life. Cancer Pract. 8, 238-242. doi:10.1046/j.1523-5394.2000.85004.x.
78. Zhang, L., Connelly, J. J., Peppel, K., Brian, L., Shah, S. H., Nelson, S., et al. (2010). Aging-related atherosclerosis is exacerbated by arterial expression of tumor necrosis factor receptor-1:evidence from mouse models and human association studies. Hum. Mol. Genet. 19, 2754-2766. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddq172.
79. Zhang, Z., Deb, A., Zhang, Z., Pachori, A., He, W., Guo, J., et al. (2009). Secreted frizzled related protein 2 protects cells from apoptosis by blocking the effect of canonical Wnt3a. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 46, 370-377. doi:10.1016/j.yjmcc.2008.11.016.
80. Zhao, J., Cheema, F. A., Bremner, J. D., Goldberg, J., Su, S., Snieder, H., et al. (2008). Heritability of carotid intima-media thickness:a twin study. Atherosclerosis 197, 814-820. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2007.07.030.