Multicultural employees: A framework for understanding how they contribute to organizations

Academy of Management Review

Volumn 38, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 525-549

  Fitzsimmons, Stacey R ^a  

^a WESTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84885340591     PISSN: 03637425     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5465/amr.2011.0234     Document Type: Article

References (127)

1. Alvesson, M. 1987. Organizations, culture, and ideology. International Studies of Management & Organization, 17(3): 4-19.
2. Ashforth, B. E., Harrison, S. H., & Corley, K. G. 2008. Identification in organizations: An examination of four fundamental questions. Journal of Management, 34: 325-374.
3. Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. 1989. Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14: 20-39.
4. Au, K. Y. 1999. Intra-cultural variation: Evidence and implications for international business. Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 799-812.
5. Barner-Rasmussen, W., Ehrnrooth, M., Koveshinikov, A., & Mäkelä, K. 2010. Linchpins of the multinational: Functions, resources and types of boundary spanners in multinational corporations. Paper presented at the Academy of International Business conference, Rio de Janeiro.
6. Barney, J. B. 1986. Organizational culture-Can it be a source of sustained competitive advantage? Academy of Management Review, 11: 656-665.
7. Bartels, J., Pruyn, A., De Jong, M., & Joustra, I. 2007. Multiple organizational identification levels and the impact of perceived external prestige and communication climate. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28: 173-190.
8. Baumeister, R. F., Shapiro, J. P., & Tice, D. M. 1985. Two kinds of identity crisis. Journal of Personality, 53: 407-424.
9. Bell, E. L. 1990. The bicultural life experience of careeroriented black women. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11: 459-477.
10. Bell, M. P., & Harrison, D. A. 1996. Using intra-national diversity for international assignments: A model of bicultural competence and expatriate adjustment. Human Resource Management Review, 6: 47-74.
11. Benet-Martínez, V., & Haritatos, J. 2005. Bicultural identity integration (BII): Components and psychosocial antecedents. Journal of Personality, 73: 1015-1049.
12. Benet-Martínez, V., Lee, F., & Leu, J. 2006. Biculturalism and cognitive complexity: Expertise in cultural representations. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 37: 386-407.
13. Berry, J. W. 1980. Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In A. Padilla (Ed.), Acculturation: Theory, models and some new findings: 9-25. Boulder, CO: Westview.
14. Berry, J. W., Phinney, J. S., Sam, D. L., & Vedder, P. 2006. Immigrant youth: Acculturation, identity and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 55: 303-332.
15. Bhagat, R. S., Baliga, B. R., Moustafa, K. S., & Krishnan, B. 2003. Knowledge in cross-cultural management in the era of globalization: Where do we go from here? In D. Tjosvold & K. Leung (Eds.), Cross-cultural foundations: Traditions for managing in a global world: 155-177. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.
16. Bhaskar-Shrinivas, P., Harrison, D. A., Shaffer, M. A., & Luk, D. M. 2005. Input-based and time-based models of international adjustment: Meta-analytic evidence and theoretical extensions. Academy of Management Journal, 48: 257-281.
17. Black, J. S., Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. 1991. Toward a comprehensive model of international adjustment: An integration of multiple theoretical perspectives. Academy of Management Review, 16: 291-317.
18. Bordieu, P. 1986. The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook for theory and research for the sociology of education: 241-258. New York: Greenwood Press.
19. Brannen, M. Y., Garcia, D., & Thomas, D. C. 2009. Biculturals as natural bridges for intercultural communication and collaboration. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Intercultural Collaboration, Palo Alto, CA.
20. Brannen, M. Y., & Thomas, D. C. 2010. Bicultural individuals in organizations: Implications and opportunity. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 10: 5-16.
21. Brewer, M. 1996. When contact is not enough: Social identity and intergroup cooperation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20: 291-303.
22. Brumbaugh, A. M. 2002. Source and nonsource cues in advertising and their effects on the activation of cultural and subcultural knowledge on the route to persuasion. Journal of Consumer Research, 29: 258-269.
23. Chan, D. 1998. Functional relations among constructs in the same content domain at different levels of analysis: A typology of compositional models. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83: 234-246.
24. Chao, G. T., & Moon, H. 2005. The cultural mosaic: A metatheory for understanding the complexity of culture. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90: 1128-1140.
25. Chen, S. X., Benet-Martínez, V., & Harris-Bond, M. H. 2008. Bicultural identity, bilingualism, and psychological adjustment in multicultural societies: Immigration-based and globalization-based acculturation. Journal of Personality, 76: 803-837.
26. Cheng, C. Y., & Lee, F. 2009. Multiracial identity integration: Perceptions of conflict and distance among multiracial individuals. Journal of Social Issues, 65: 51-68.
27. Cheng, C. Y., Lee, F., & Benet-Martínez, V. 2006. Assimilation and contrast effects in cultural frame switching: Bicultural identity integration and valence of cultural cues. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 37: 742-760.
28. Cheng, C. Y., Sanchez-Burks, J., & Lee, F. 2008. Connecting the dots within: Creative performance and identity integration. Psychological Science, 19: 1178-1184.
29. Cheng, C. Y., Sanders, M., Sanchez-Burks, J., Molina, K., Lee, F., Darling, E., & Zhao, Y. 2008. Reaping the rewards of diversity: The role of identity integration. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2: 1182-1198.
30. Choy, W. 2010. Multiculturalism-Are we there yet? Speech presented at UBC-Laurier Institution Multiculturalism Lecture Series, Vancouver, Canada.
31. Connor, J. W. 1974. Acculturation and family continuities in three generations of Japanese Americans. Journal of Marriage and Family, 36: 159-165.
32. DiversityInc. 2009. The DiversityInc top 50 companies for diversity. http://diversityinc.com/department/289/; accessed October 2010.
33. Dukerich, J. M., Kramer, R., & McLean Parks, J. 1998. The dark side of organizational identification. In D. A. Whetten & P. C. Godfrey (Eds.), Identity in organizations: Building theory through conversations: 245-256. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
34. Dutton, J. E., Dukerich, J. M., & Harquail, C. V. 1994. Organizational images and member identification. Administrative Science Quarterly, 39: 239-263.
35. Elliot, A. J., & Devine, P. G. 1994. On the motivational nature of cognitive dissonance: Dissonance as psychological discomfort. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67: 382-394.
36. Ely, R. J., & Thomas, D. A. 2001. Cultural diversity at work: The effects of diversity perspectives on work group processes and outcomes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46: 229-273.
37. Erikson, E. 1956. The problem of ego identity. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 4: 56-121.
38. Erikson, E. 1963. Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.
39. Fitzsimmons, S. R., Miska, C., & Stahl, G. K. 2011. Multicultural employees: Global business' untapped resource. Organizational Dynamics, 40(3): 199-206.
40. Forehand, M. R., Deshpandé, R., & Reed, A., II. 2002. Identity salience and the influence of differential activation of the social self-schema on advertising response. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 1086-1199.
41. Friedkin, N., & Simpson, M. 1985. Effects of competition on members' identification with their subunits. Administrative Science Quarterly, 30: 377-394.
42. Gelfand, M. J., Erez, M., & Aycan, Z. 2007. Cross-cultural organizational behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58: 479-514.
43. Gelfand, M. J., Nishii, L. H., & Raver, J. L. 2006. On the nature and importance of cultural tightness-looseness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 1225-1244.
44. Gersick, C. J. G. 1991. Revolutionary change theories: A multilevel exploration of the punctuated equilibrium paradigm. Academy of Management Review, 16: 10-36.
45. Giridharadas, A. 2010. New leaders find strength in diversity. New York Times, May 6: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/07/us/07iht-currents.html.
46. Hannerz, U. 1990. Cosmopolitans and locals in world culture. In M. Featherstone (Ed.), Global culture: Nationalism, globalization and modernity: 237-252. London: Sage.
47. Haslam, S. A. 2004. Psychology in organizations: The social identity approach (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
48. Herdman, A. O., & McMillan-Capehart, A. 2010. Establishing a diversity program is not enough: Exploring the determinants of diversity climate. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25: 39-53.
49. Hogg, M. A., & Terry, D. J. 2000. Social identity and selfcategorization processes in organizational contexts. Academy of Management Review, 25: 121-140.
50. Hong, H. J. 2010. Bicultural competence and its impact on team effectiveness. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 10: 93-120.
51. Hong, Y. Y., Morris, M. W., Chiu, C. Y., & Benet-Martínez, V. 2000. Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. American Psychologist, 55: 709-720.
52. Jackson, S. E., Joshi, A., & Erhardt, N. L. 2003. Recent research on team and organizational diversity: SWOT analysis and implications. Journal of Management, 29: 801-830.
53. Johns, G. 2007. The essential impact of context on organizational behavior. Academy of Management Review, 31: 386-408.
54. Johnson, J. P., Lenartowicz, T., & Apud, S. 2006. Cross-cultural competence in international business: Toward a definition and a model. Journal of International Business Studies, 37: 525-543.
55. Jonsen, K., Maznevski, M. L., & Schneider, S. C. 2011. Diversity and its not so diverse literature: An international perspective. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 11: 35-62.
56. Joshi, A. 2006. The influence of organizational demography on the external networking behavior of teams. Academy of Management Review, 31: 583-595.
57. Kirkman, B., & Law, K. 2005. From the editors: International management research in AMJ: Our past, present, and future. Academy of Management Journal, 48: 377-386.
58. Kreiner, G. E., Hollensbe, E. C., & Sheep, M. L. 2006. Where is the "me" among the "we"? Identity work and the search for optimal balance. Academy of Management Journal, 49: 1031-1059.
59. LaFromboise, T., Coleman, H. L., & Gerton, J. 1993. Psychological impact of biculturalism: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 114: 395-412.
60. Lee, R. M., Falbo, T., Doh, H. S., & Park, S. Y. 2001. The Korean diasporic experience: Measuring ethnic identity in the United States and China. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 7: 207-216.
61. Lee, Y.-T. 2010. Home versus host-Identifying with either, both or neither? The relationship between dual cultural identities and intercultural effectiveness. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 10: 55-76.
62. Leung, A. K.-Y., & Chiu, C.-Y. 2010. Multicultural experience, idea receptiveness, and creativity. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 41: 723-741.
63. Li, J., Xin, K., & Pillutla, M. 2002. Multi-cultural leadership teams and organizational identification in international joint ventures. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13: 320-337.
64. Linville, P. W. 1987. Self-complexity as a cognitive buffer against stress-related illness and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52: 663-676.
65. Markus, H. R. 1977. Self-schemata and processing information about the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35: 63-78.
66. Markus, H. R. 1986. Stability and malleability of the selfconcept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51: 858-866.
67. Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. 1991. Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion and motivation. Psychological Review, 98: 224-253.
68. Mol, S. T., Born, M. P., Willemsen, M. E., & Van der Molen, H. T. 2005. Predicting expatriate job performance for selection purposes: A quantitative review. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35: 590-620.
69. Molinsky, A. 2007. Cross-cultural code-switching: The psychological challenges of adapting behavior in foreign cultural interactions. Academy of Management Review, 32: 622-640.
70. Mullen, B., Calogero, R. M., & Leader, T. I. 2007. A social psychological study of ethnonyms: Cognitive representation of the in-group and intergroup hostility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92: 612-630.
71. Musterd, S., & Ostendorf, W. 2009. Residential segregation and integration in the Netherlands. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 35: 1515-1532.
72. Nahapiet, J., & Ghoshal, S. 1998. Social capital, intellectual capital, and the organizational advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23: 242-266.
73. Nguyen, A.-M. T. D., & Benet-Martínez, V. 2012. Biculturalism and adjustment: A meta-analysis. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44: 122-159.
74. Park, B., & Judd, C. M. 2005. Rethinking the link between categorization and prejudice within the social cognition perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9: 108-130.
75. Park, B., & Rothbart, M. 1982. Perception of out-group homogeneity and levels of social categorization: Memory for the subordinate attributes of in-group and out-group members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42: 1051-1068.
76. Park, R. E. 1928. Human migration and the marginal man. American Journal of Sociology, 5: 881-893.
77. Phinney, J. S. 1990. Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108: 499-514.
78. Phinney, J. S., Berry, J. W., Vedder, P., & Liebkind, K. 2006. The acculturation experience: Attitudes, identities, and behaviors of immigrant youth. In J. W. Berry, J. S. Phinney, D. L. Sam, & P. Vedder (Eds.), Immigrant youth in cultural transition: Acculturation, identity and adaptation across national contexts: 71-116. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
79. Phinney, J. S., & Devich-Navarro, M. 1997. Variations in bicultural identification among African-American and Mexican-American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 7: 3-32.
80. Plaut, V. C., Garnett, F. G., Buffardi, L. E., & Sanchez-Burks, J. 2011. "What about me?" Perceptions of exclusion and whites' reactions to multiculturalism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101: 337-353.
81. Poston, W. S. C. 1990. The biracial identity development model: A needed addition. Journal of Counseling & Development, 69: 152-155.
82. Pratt, M. G., & Foreman, P. O. 2000. Classifying managerial responses to multiple organizational identities. Academy of Management Review, 25: 18-42.
83. Prelinger, E., & Zimet, C. W. 1964. An ego-psychological approach to character assessment. New York: Free Press.
84. Reicher, S. 2004. The context of social identity: Domination, resistance, and change. Political Psychology, 25: 921-945.
85. Reichers, A. E., & Schneider, B. 1990. Climate and culture: An evolution of constructs. In B. Schneider (Ed.), Organizational climate and culture: 5-39. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
86. Roccas, S., & Brewer, M. B. 2002. Social identity complexity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6: 88-106.
87. Roccas, S., Sagiv, L., Schwartz, S , Halevy, N., & Eidelson, R. 2008. Toward a unifying model of identification with groups: Integrating theoretical perspectives. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12: 280-306.
88. Rotheram-Borus, M. J. 1990. Adolescents' reference-group choices, self-esteem, and adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59: 1075-1081.
89. Rotondi, T. J. 1975. Organizational identification: Issues and implications. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13: 95-109.
90. Sackmann, S. A., & Phillips, M. E. 2004. Contextual influences on culture research: Shifting assumptions for new workplace realities. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 4: 370-390.
91. Salk, J. 2012. Changing IB scholarship via rhetoric or bloody knuckles? A case study in the boundary conditions for persuasion. Journal of International Business Studies, 43: 28-40.
92. Schwartz, S. H. 1994. Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, methods and applications: 85-119. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
93. Shaffer, M. A., Harrison, D. A., Gregersen, H., Black, J. S., & Ferzandi, L. A. 2006. You can take it with you: Individual differences and expatriate effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 109-125.
94. Shenkar, O., Luo, Y., & Yeheskel, O. 2008. From "distance" to "friction": Substituting metaphors and redirecting intercultural research. Academy of Management Review, 33: 905-923.
95. Siemens. 2009. Who do we recruit: Bicultural profiles. https://www.swe.siemens.com/france/web/en/sts/career/HR-Strategy/ who-do-we-recruit/bicultural/Pages/bicultural-profiles.aspx; accessed April 6, 2012.
96. Smith, A. G., Stewart, A. J., & Winter, D. G. 2004. Close encounters with the Midwest: Forming identity in a bicultural context. Political Psychology, 25: 611-641.
97. Stahl, G. K., Mäkelä, K., Zander, L., & Maznevski, M. L. 2010. A look at the bright side of multicultural team diversity. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 26: 439-447.
98. Stahl, G. K., Maznevski, M. L., Voigt, A., & Jonsen, K. 2010. Unraveling the effects of cultural diversity in teams: A meta-analysis of research on multicultural work groups. Journal of International Business Studies, 41: 690-709.
99. Stephan, C. W., & Stephan, W. G. 1992. Reducing intercultural anxiety through intercultural contact. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16: 89-106.
100. Stonequist, E. V. 1937. The marginal man: A study in personality and culture conflict. New York: Russell & Russell.
101. Stroink, M. L., & Lalonde, R. N. 2009. Bicultural identity conflict in second-generation Asian Canadians. Journal of Social Psychology, 149: 44-65.
102. Tadmor, C. T., Galinsky, A. D., & Maddux, W. W. 2012. Getting the most out of living abroad: Biculturalism and integra-tive complexity as key drivers of creative and professional success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103: 520-542.
103. Tadmor, C. T., & Tetlock, P. E. 2006. Biculturalism: A model of the effects of second-culture exposure on acculturation and integrative complexity. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 37: 173-190.
104. Tadmor, C. T., Tetlock, P. E., & Peng, K. 2009. Acculturation strategies and integrative complexity: The cognitive implications of biculturalism. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40: 105-139.
105. Tajfel, H. 1982. Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 33: 1-39.
106. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. 1986. The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations: 7-24. Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
107. Tavella, C. 1997. The effects of self and adopted schemas on response latency to personality items. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58(4-B): 2142.
108. Taylor, D. M. 1991. The social psychology of racial and cultural diversity: Issues of assmilation and multiculturalism. In A. G. Reynolds (Ed.), Bilingualism, multiculturalism, and second language learning. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
109. Thoits, P. A. 1983. Multiple identities and psychological wellbeing: A reformulation and test of the social isolation hypothesis. American Sociological Review, 48: 174-187.
110. Thoits, P. A. 1986. Multiple identities: Examining gender and marital status differences in distress. American Sociological Review, 51: 259-272.
111. Thoits, P. A. 1999. The relevance of self and identity issues to stress and mental health. In C. S. Anashensel & J. C. Phelan (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of mental health: 345-368. New York: Kluwer Academic.
112. Thomas, D. C. 2006. Domain and development of cultural intelligence: The importance of mindfulness. Group & Organization Management, 31: 78-99.
113. Thomas, D. C., Elron, E., Stahl, G., Ekelund, B. Z., Ravlin, E. C., Cerdin, J., Poelmans, S., Brislin, R., Pekerti, A., Aycan, Z., Maznevski, M., Au, K., & Lazarova, M. B. 2008. Cultural intelligence: Domain and assessment. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 8: 123-143.
114. Thomas, D. C., & Fitzsimmons, S. R. 2008. Cross-cultural skills and abilities: From communication competence to cultural intelligence. In P. B. Smith, M. F. Peterson, & D. C. Thomas (Ed.), The handbook of cross-cultural management research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
115. Thomas, D. C., & Lazarova, M. B. 2005. Expatriate adjustment and performance: A critical review. In G. K. Stahl & I. Björkman (Eds.), The handbook of research in international human resource management: 247-264. Thousand Oaks, CA: Edward Elgar.
116. Thomas, K. M. 1996. Psychological privilege and ethnocentrism as barriers to cross-cultural adjustment and effective intercultural interactions. Leadership Quarterly, 7: 215-228.
117. Tsai, J. L., Chentsova-Dutton, Y., & Wong, Y. 2002. Why and how researchers should study ethnic identity, acculturation, and cultural orientation. In G. C. N. Hall & S. Okazaki (Eds.), Asian American psychology: The science of lives in context: 41-65. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
118. Tsui, A. S. 2007. From homogenization to pluralism: International management research in the Academy and beyond. Academy of Management Journal, 50: 1353-1364.
119. Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. 1987. Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford: Blackwell.
120. United Nations Statistics Division. 2011. UNSD demographic statistics. http://data.un.org; accessed April 11, 2012.
121. Van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Phalet, K. 2004. Assessment in multicultural groups: The role of acculturation. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53: 215-236.
122. Vasta, E. 2007. From ethnic minorities to ethnic majority policy: Multiculturalism and the shift to assimilationism in the Netherlands. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30: 713-740.
123. Vora, D., & Kostova, T. 2007. A model of dual organizational identification in the context of the multinational enterprise. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28: 327-350.
124. Williams, C. L., & Berry, J. W. 1991. Primary prevention of acculturative stress among refugees: Application of psychological theory and practice. American Psychologist, 46: 632-641.
125. Yamazaki, Y., & Kayes, D. C. 2004. An experiential approach to cross-cultural learning: A review and integration of competencies for successful expatriate adaptation. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 3: 362-379.
126. Yip, T., & Fuligni, A. J. 2002. Daily variation in ethnic identity, ethnic behaviors, and psychological well-being among American adolescents of Chinese descent. Child Development, 73: 1557-1572.
127. Yoon, E., Langrehr, K., & Ong, L. Z. 2011. Content analysis of acculturation research in counseling and counseling psychology: A 22-year review. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58: 83-96.