The Impact of Traumatic Brain Injury on Pituitary Function

Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America

Volumn 42, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 565-583

  Sundaram, Nina K ^a   Geer, Eliza B ^a   Greenwald, Brian D ^b,c  

^a MOUNT SINAI MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b JFK Johnson Rehabilitation Center for Head Injuries   (United States)

^c RUTGERS ROBERT WOOD JOHNSON MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

Diagnosis; Hormone replacement therapy; Hypopituitarism; Neurocognitive impairment; Outcome; Pathophysiology; Screening; Traumatic brain injury

Indexed keywords

ESTRADIOL; GROWTH HORMONE; SOMATOMEDIN C; TESTOSTERONE;

CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS; CLINICAL FEATURE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; GROWTH HORMONE DEFICIENCY; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; HYPOPHYSIS FUNCTION; HYPOPITUITARISM; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; SCREENING TEST; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY; TREATMENT RESPONSE;

DIAGNOSIS; HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY; HYPOPITUITARISM; NEUROCOGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT; OUTCOME; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; SCREENING; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY;

BRAIN INJURIES; HUMANS; HYPOPITUITARISM;

EID: 84883491907     PISSN: 08898529     EISSN: 15584410     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ecl.2013.05.003     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Faul M., Xu L., Wald M.M., et al. Traumatic brain injury in the United States: Emergency Department Visits, Hospitalizations, and Deaths 2002-2006 2010, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Atlanta (GA).
2. Langlois J.A., Rutland-Brown W., Wald M. The epidemiology and impact of traumatic brain injury: a brief overview. JHead Trauma Rehabil 2006, 21:375-378.
3. Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Committee, Head Injury Interdisciplinary Special Interest Group, American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine Definition of mild traumatic brain injury. JHead Trauma Rehabil 1993, 8(3):86.
4. Bruns J., Hauser W.A. The epidemiology of traumatic brain injury: a review. Epilepsia 2003, 44(Suppl 10):2-10.
5. Kushner D. Mild traumatic brain injury. ARCH Intern Med 1998, 158:1617-1624.
6. Alexander M.P. Mild traumatic brain injury: pathophysiology, natural history, and clinical management. Neurology 1995, 45:1253-1260.
7. Hibbard M.R., Bogdany J., Uysal S., et al. Axis II psychopathology in individuals with traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2000, 14:45-61.
8. Institute of Medicine Gulf war and health, Vol. 7: longterm consequences of traumatic brain injury 2009, The National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
9. Annegers J.F., Hauser W.A., Coan S.P., et al. Apopulation-based study of seizures after traumatic brain injury. NEngl J Med 1998, 338:20-24.
10. Hauser W.A., Annegers J.F., Kurland L.T. Prevalence of epilepsy in Rochester, Minnesota: 1940-1980. Epilepsia 1991, 32:429-445.
11. Greenwald B.D., Sabini R.C. Sleep. Medical management of adults with neurologic disabilities 2009, 363-374. Demos Medical Publishing, New York. A. Cristian (Ed.).
12. McAllister T.W. Emotional and behavioral sequelae of traumatic brain injury. Brain injury medicine: principles and practice 2013, 1039. Demos Medical Publishing, New York. 2nd edition. N.D. Zasler, D.I. Katz, R.D. Zafonte (Eds.).
13. Plassman B.L., Havlik R.J., Steffens D.C., et al. Documented head injury in early adulthood and risk of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias. Neurology 2000, 55:1158-1166.
14. Lye T.C., Shores E.A. Traumatic brain injury as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: a review. Neuropsychol Rev 2000, 10:115-129.
15. Cyran E. Hypohysenschadigung durch Schadelbasisfraktur. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 1918, 44:1261.
16. Chou Y.C., Wang T.Y., Yang P.Y., et al. Permanent central diabetes insipidus after mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2009, 23:1095-1098.
17. Kornblum R.N., Fisher R.S. Pituitary lesions in craniocerebral injuries. Arch Pathol 1969, 88:242-248.
18. Poomthavorn P., Zacharin M. Traumatic brain injury-mediated hypopituitarism. Report of four cases. Eur J Pediatr 2007, 166:1163-1168.
19. Klingbeil G.E., Cline P. Anterior hypopituitarism: a consequence of head injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1985, 66:44-46.
20. Takala R.S., Katila A.J., Sonninen P., et al. Panhypopituitarism after traumatic head injury. Neurocrit Care 2006, 4:21-24.
21. Edwards O.M., Clark J.D. Post-traumatic hypopituitarism. Six cases and a review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 1986, 65:281-290.
22. Benvenga S., Campenní A., Ruggeri R.M., et al. Clinical review 113: hypopituitarism secondary to head trauma. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2000, 85:1353-1361.
23. Urban R.J., Harris P., Masel B. Anterior hypopituitarism following traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2005, 19:349-358.
24. Aimaretti G., Ambrosio M.R., Di Somma C., et al. Residual pituitary function after brain injury-induced hypopituitarism: a prospective 12-month study. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2005, 90:6085-6092.
25. Bondanelli M., De Marinis L., Ambrosio M.R., et al. Occurrence of pituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injury. JNeurotrauma 2004, 21:685-696.
26. Tanriverdi F., Senyurek H., Unluhizarci K., et al. High risk of hypopituitarism after traumatic brain injury: a prospective investigation of anterior pituitary function in the acute phase and 12 months after trauma. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2006, 91:2105-2111.
27. Klose M., Juul A., Struck J., et al. Acute and long-term pituitary insufficiency in traumatic brain injury: a prospective single-centre study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2007, 67:598-606.
28. Popovic V., Pekic S., Pavlovic D., et al. Hypopituitarism as a consequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and its possible relation with cognitive disabilities and mental distress. JEndocrinol Invest 2004, 27:1048-1054.
29. Agha A., Rogers B., Sherlock M., et al. Anterior pituitary dysfunction in survivors of traumatic brain injury. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2004, 89:4929-4936.
30. Leal-Cerro A., Flores J.M., Rincon M., et al. Prevalence of hypopituitarism and growth hormone deficiency in adults long-term after severe traumatic brain injury. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2005, 62:525-532.
31. Schneider H.J., Schneider M., Saller B., et al. Prevalence of anterior pituitary insufficiency 3 and 12 months after traumatic brain injury. Eur J Endocrinol 2006, 154:259-265.
32. Herrmann B.L., Rehder J., Kahlke S., et al. Hypopituitarism following severe traumatic brain injury. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2006, 114:316-321.
33. Lieberman S.A., Oberoi A.L., Gilkison C.R., et al. Prevalence of neuroendocrine dysfunction in patients recovering from traumatic brain injury. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2001, 86:2752-2756.
34. Kelly D.F., Gonzalo I.T., Cohan P., et al. Hypopituitarism following traumatic brain injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a preliminary report. JNeurosurg 2000, 93:743-752.
35. Schneider H.J., Kreitschmann-Andermahr I., Ghigo E., et al. Hypothalamopituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a systematic review. JAMA 2007, 298:1429-1438.
36. Schneider M., Schneider H.J., Yassouridis A., et al. Predictors of anterior pituitary insufficiency after traumatic brain injury. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2008, 68:206-212.
37. Bavisetty S., Bavisetty S., McArthur D.L., et al. Chronic hypopituitarism after traumatic brain injury: risk assessment and relationship to outcome. Neurosurgery 2008, 62:1080-1093. [discussion: 1093-4].
38. Kelestimur F., Tanriverdi F., Atmaca H., et al. Boxing as a sport activity associated with isolated GH deficiency. JEndocrinol Invest 2004, 27:28-32.
39. Ives J.C., Alderman M., Stred S.E. Hypopituitarism after multiple concussions: a retrospective case study in an adolescent male. JAthl Train 2007, 42:431-439.
40. Tanriverdi F., Unluhizarci K., Coksevim B., et al. Kickboxing sport as a new cause of traumatic brain injury-mediated hypopituitarism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2007, 66:360-366.
41. Agha A., Phillips J., O'Kelly P., et al. The natural history of post-traumatic hypopituitarism: implications for assessment and treatment. Am J Med 2005, 118:1416.
42. Tanriverdi F., Ulutabanca H., Unluhizarci K., et al. Three years prospective investigation of anterior pituitary function after traumatic brain injury: a pilot study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2008, 68:573-579.
43. Agha A., Thornton E., O'Kelly P., et al. Posterior pituitary dysfunction after traumatic brain injury. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2004, 89:5987-5992.
44. Dusick J., Wang C., Cohan P., et al. Pathophysiology of hypopituitarism in the setting of brain injury. Pituitary 2012, 15:2-9.
45. Bristritzer T., Theodor R., Inbar D., et al. Anterior hypopituitarism due to fracture of the sella turcica. Am J Dis Child 1981, 135:966-968.
46. Ghigo E., Masel B., Aimaretti G., et al. Consensus guidelines on screening for hypopituitarism following traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2005, 19:711-724.
47. Moffat S.D., Zonderman A.B., Metter E.J., et al. Longitudinal assessment of serum free testosterone concentration predicts memory performance and cognitive status in elderly men. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2002, 87:5001-5007.
48. Janowsky J.S., Chavez B., Orwoll E. Sex steroids modify working memory. JCogn Neurosci 2000, 12:407-414.
49. Rosario E.R., Aqeel R., Brown M.A., et al. Hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injury affects functional improvement during acute inpatient rehabilitation. JHead Trauma Rehabil 2012, 28(3):1-7.
50. Bondanelli M., Ambrosio M.R., Cavazzini L., et al. Anterior pituitary function may predict functional and cognitive outcome in patients with traumatic brain injury undergoing rehabilitation. JNeurotrauma 2007, 24:1687-1697.
51. Park K.D., Kim D.Y., Lee J.K., et al. Anterior pituitary dysfunction in moderate-to-severe chronic traumatic brain injury patients and the influence on functional outcome. Brain Inj 2010, 24:1330-1335.
52. Kelly D.F., McArthur D.L., Levin H., et al. Neurobehavioral and quality of life changes associated with growth hormone insufficiency after complicated mild, moderate, or severe traumatic brain injury. JNeurotrauma 2006, 23:928-942.
53. León-Carrión J., Leal-Cerro A., Cabezas F.M., et al. Cognitive deterioration due to GH deficiency in patients with traumatic brain injury: a preliminary report. Brain Inj 2007, 21:871-875.
54. Young T.P., Hoaglin H.M., Burke D.T. The role of serum testosterone and TBI in the in-patient rehabilitation setting. Brain Inj 2007, 21:645-649.
55. Carlson N.E., Brenner L.A., Wierman M.E., et al. Hypogonadism on admission to acute rehabilitation is correlated with lower functional status at admission and discharge. Brain Inj 2009, 23:336-344.
56. Srinivasan L., Roberts B., Bushnik T., et al. The impact of hypopituitarism on function and performance in subjects with recent history of traumatic brain injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage. Brain Inj 2009, 23:639-648.
57. Christophidis L.J., Gorba T., Gustavsson M., et al. Growth hormone receptor immunoreactivity is increased in the subventricular zone of juvenile rat brain after focal ischemia: a potential role for growth hormone in injury-induced neurogenesis. Growth Horm IGF Res 2009, 19:497-506.
58. Silha J.V., Krsek M., Hana V., et al. The effects of growth hormone status on circulating levels of vascular growth factors. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2005, 63:79-86.
59. Scheepens A., Williams C.E., Breier B.H., et al. Arole for the somatotropic axis in neural development, injury and disease. JPediatr Endocrinol Metab 2000, 13(Suppl 6):1483-1491.
60. Napoli R., Guardasole V., Angelini V., et al. Acute effects of growth hormone onvascular function in human subjects. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2003, 88:2817-2820.
61. Hána V., Prázný M., Marek J., et al. Reduced microvascular perfusion and reactivity in adult GH deficient patients is restored by GH replacement. Eur J Endocrinol 2002, 147:333-337.
62. Ye P., Li L., Richards R.G., et al. Myelination is altered in insulin-like growth factor-I null mutant mice. JNeurosci 2002, 22:6041-6051.
63. Ye P., D'Ercole A.J. Insulin-like growth factor I protects oligodendrocytes from tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced injury. Endocrinology 1999, 140:3063-3072.
64. Zhong J., Deng J., Phan J., et al. Insulin-like growth factor-I protects granule neurons from apoptosis and improves ataxia in weaver mice. JNeurosci Res 2005, 80:481-490.
65. Stein D.G. Brain damage, sex hormones and recovery: a new role for progesterone and estrogen?. Trends Neurosci 2001, 24:386-391.
66. Vegeto E., Belcredito S., Etteri S., et al. Estrogen receptor-alpha mediates the brain antiinflammatory activity of estradiol. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003, 100:9614-9619.
67. Tanriverdi F., Unluhizarci K., Kelestimur F. Pituitary function in subjects with mild traumatic brain injury: a review of literature and proposal of a screening strategy. Pituitary 2010, 13:146-153.
68. Gasco V., Prodam F., Pagano L., et al. Hypopituitarism following brain injury: when does it occur and how best to test?. Pituitary 2012, 15:20-24.
69. Glynn N., Agha A. Which patient requires neuroendocrine assessment following traumatic brain injury, when and how?. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2013, 78:17-20.
70. Schmidt I.L., Lahner H., Mann K., et al. Diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency: evaluation of the corticotropin-releasing hormone test and basal serum cortisol in comparison to the insulin tolerance test in patients with hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal disease. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2003, 88:4193-4198.
71. Hannon M.J., Sherlock M., Thompson C.J. Pituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injury or subarachnoid haemorrhage - in "Endocrine Management in the Intensive Care Unit". Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011, 25:783-798.
72. Biller B.M., Samuels M.H., Zagar A., et al. Sensitivity and specificity of six tests for the diagnosis of adult GH deficiency. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2002, 87:2067-2079.
73. Conceição F.L., Da Costa e Silva A., Leal Costa A.J., et al. Glucagon stimulation test for the diagnosis of GH deficiency in adults. JEndocrinol Invest 2003, 26:1065-1070.
74. Molitch M.E., Clemmons D.R., Malozowski S., et al. Evaluation and treatment of adult growth hormone deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2011, 96:1587-1609.
75. Thaler L.M., Blevins L.S. The low dose (1-microg) adrenocorticotropin stimulation test in the evaluation of patients with suspected central adrenal insufficiency. JClin Endocrinol Metab 1998, 83:2726-2729.
76. Tuchelt H., Dekker K., Bähr V., et al. Dose-response relationship between plasma ACTH and serum cortisol in the insulin-hypoglycaemia test in 25 healthy subjects and 109 patients with pituitary disease. Clin Endocrinol 2000, 53:301-307.
77. Corneli G., Di Somma C., Baldelli R., et al. The cut-off limits of the GH response to GH-releasing hormone-arginine test related to body mass index. Eur J Endocrinol 2005, 153:257-264.
78. Streeten D.H., Anderson G.H., Bonaventura M.M. The potential for serious consequences from misinterpreting normal responses to the rapid adrenocorticotropin test. JClin Endocrinol Metab 1996, 81:285-290.
79. Dickstein G., Shechner C., Nicholson W.E., et al. Adrenocorticotropin stimulation test: effects of basal cortisol level, time of day, and suggested new sensitive low dose test. JClin Endocrinol Metab 1991, 72:773-778.
80. Dökmetaş H.S., Colak R., Keleştimur F., et al. Acomparison between the 1-microg adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) test, the short ACTH (250 microg) test, and the insulin tolerance test in the assessment of hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis immediately after pituitary surgery. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2000, 85:3713-3719.
81. Maison P., Griffin S., Nicoue-Beglah M., et al. Impact of growth hormone (GH) treatment on cardiovascular risk factors in GH-deficient adults: a metaanalysis of blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled trials. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2004, 89:2192-2199.
82. Bollerslev J., Ueland T., Jørgensen A.P., et al. Positive effects of a physiological dose of GH on markers of atherogenesis: a placebo-controlled study in patients with adult-onset GH deficiency. Eur J Endocrinol 2006, 154:537-543.
83. Abs R., Feldt-Rasmussen U., Mattsson A.F., et al. Determinants of cardiovascular risk in 2589 hypopituitary GH-deficient adults - a KIMS database analysis. Eur J Endocrinol 2006, 155:79-90.
84. Maison P., Chanson P. Cardiac effects of growth hormone in adults with growth hormone deficiency: a meta-analysis. Circulation 2003, 108:2648-2652.
85. Rosano G.M., Vitale C., Fini M. Hormone replacement therapy and cardioprotection: what is good and what is bad for the cardiovascular system?. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006, 1092:341-348.
86. Garber J.R., Cobin R.H., Gharib H., et al. Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: cosponsored by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Thyroid Association. Thyroid 2012, 22:1200-1235.
87. Rutland-Brown W., Langlois J.A., Thomas K.E., et al. Incidence of traumatic brain injury in the United States, 2003. JHead Trauma Rehabil 2006, 21:544-548.
88. Bleicken B., Hahner S., Loeffler M., et al. Influence of hydrocortisone dosage scheme on health-related quality of life in patients with adrenal insufficiency. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2010, 72:297-304.
89. Langenheim J., Ventz M., Hinz A., et al. Modified-release prednisone decreases complaints and fatigue compared to standard prednisolone in patients with adrenal insufficiency. Horm Metab Res 2013, 45:96-101.
90. Samuels M.H., Schuff K.G., Carlson N.E., et al. Health status, psychological symptoms, mood, and cognition in l-thyroxine-treated hypothyroid subjects. Thyroid 2007, 17:249-258.
91. Dugbartey A.T. Neurocognitive aspects of hypothyroidism. Arch Intern Med 1998, 158:1413-1418.
92. Soares C.N., Almeida O.P., Joffe H., et al. Efficacy of estradiol for the treatment of depressive disorders in perimenopausal women: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001, 58:529-534.
93. Zweifel J.E., O'Brien W.H. Ameta-analysis of the effect of hormone replacement therapy upon depressed mood. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1997, 22:189-212.
94. Rosilio M., Blum W.F., Edwards D.J., et al. Long-term improvement of quality of life during growth hormone (GH) replacement therapy in adults with GH deficiency, as measured by questions on life satisfaction-hypopituitarism (QLS-H). JClin Endocrinol Metab 2004, 89:1684-1693.
95. Wirén L., Bengtsson B.Å., Johannsson G. Beneficial effects of long-term GH replacement therapy on quality of life in adults with GH deficiency. Clin Endocrinol 1998, 48:613-620.
96. Murray R.D., Skillicorn C.J., Howell S.J., et al. Influences on quality of life in GH deficient adults and their effect on response to treatment. Clin Endocrinol 1999, 51:565-573.
97. Maruff P., Falleti M. Cognitive function in growth hormone deficiency and growth hormone replacement. Horm Res 2005, 64(Suppl 3):100-108.
98. Falleti M.G., Maruff P., Burman P., et al. The effects of growth hormone (GH) deficiency and GH replacement on cognitive performance in adults: a meta-analysis of the current literature. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2006, 31:681-691.
99. Deijen J.B., De Boer H., Van der Veen E.A. Cognitive changes during growth hormone replacement in adult men. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1998, 23:45-55.
100. Arwert L.I., Veltman D.J., Deijen J.B., et al. Effects of growth hormone substitution therapy on cognitive functioning in growth hormone deficient patients: a functional MRI study. Neuroendocrinology 2006, 83:12-19.
101. Sathiavageeswaran M., Burman P., Lawrence D., et al. Effects of GH on cognitive function in elderly patients with adult-onset GH deficiency: a placebo-controlled 12-month study. Eur J Endocrinol 2007, 156:439-447.
102. Oertel H., Schneider H.J., Stalla G.K., et al. The effect of growth hormone substitution on cognitive performance in adult patients with hypopituitarism. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2004, 29:839-850.
103. Janowsky J.S., Oviatt S.K., Orwoll E.S. Testosterone influences spatial cognition in older men. Behav Neurosci 1994, 108:325-332.
104. Cherrier M.M., Craft S., Matsumoto A.H. Cognitive changes associated with supplementation of testosterone or dihydrotestosterone in mildly hypogonadal men: a preliminary report. JAndrol 2003, 24:568-576.
105. Alexander G.M., Swerdloff R.S., Wang C., et al. Androgen-behavior correlations in hypogonadal men and eugonadal men. II. Cognitive abilities. Horm Behav 1998, 33:85-94.
106. Ross J.L., Roeltgen D., Feuillan P., et al. Effects of estrogen on nonverbal processing speed and motor function in girls with Turner's syndrome. JClin Endocrinol Metab 1998, 83:3198-3204.
107. Ross J.L., Roeltgen D., Feuillan P., et al. Use of estrogen in young girls with Turner syndrome: effects on memory. Neurology 2000, 54:164-170.
108. Sherwin B.B. Estrogenic effects on memory in women. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1994, 743:213-230.
109. Schmidt R., Fazekas F., Reinhart B., et al. Estrogen replacement therapy in older women: a neuropsychological and brain MRI study. JAm Geriatr Soc 1996, 44:1307-1313.
110. Jacobs D.M., Tang M.X., Stern Y., et al. Cognitive function in nondemented older women who took estrogen after menopause. Neurology 1998, 50:368-373.
111. Miller K.J., Parsons T.D., Whybrow P.C., et al. Memory improvement with treatment of hypothyroidism. Int J Neurosci 2006, 116:895-906.
112. Attanasio A.F., Howell S., Bates P.C., et al. Body composition, IGF-I and IGFBP-3 concentrations as outcome measures in severely GH-deficient (GHD) patients after childhood GH treatment: a comparison with adult onset GHD patients. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2002, 87:3368-3372.
113. Attanasio A.F., Bates P.C., Ho K.K., et al. Human growth hormone replacement in adult hypopituitary patients: long-term effects on body composition and lipid status-3-year results from the HypoCCS Database. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2002, 87:1600-1606.
114. Hoffman A.R., Kuntze J.E., Baptista J., et al. Growth hormone (GH) replacement therapy in adult-onset GH deficiency: effects on body composition in men and women in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2004, 89:2048-2056.
115. Gibney J., Wallace J.D., Spinks T., et al. The effects of 10 years of recombinant human growth hormone (GH) in adult GH-deficient patients. JClin Endocrinol Metab 1999, 84:2596-2602.
116. Widdowson W.M., Gibney J. The effect of growth hormone replacement on exercise capacity in patients with GH deficiency: a metaanalysis. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2008, 93:4413-4417.
117. Woodhouse L.J., Asa S.L., Thomas S.G., et al. Measures of submaximal aerobic performance evaluate and predict functional response to growth hormone (GH) treatment in GH-deficient adults. JClin Endocrinol Metab 1998, 84:4570-4577.
118. Götherström G., Elbornsson M., Stibrant-Sunnerhagen K., et al. Ten years of growth hormone (GH) replacement normalizes muscle strength in GH-deficient adults. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2009, 94:809-816.
119. Page S.T., Amory J.K., Bowman F.D., et al. Exogenous testosterone (T) alone or with finasteride increases physical performance, grip strength, and lean body mass in older men with low serum T. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2005, 90:1502-1510.
120. Snyder P.J., Peachey H., Hannoush P., et al. Effect of testosterone treatment on body composition and muscle strength in men over 65 years of age. JClin Endocrinol Metab 1999, 84:2647-2653.
121. Sih R., Morley J.E., Kaiser F.E., et al. Testosterone replacement in older hypogonadal men: a 12-month randomized controlled trial. JClin Endocrinol Metab 1997, 82:1661-1667.
122. Cleemann L., Hjerrild B.E., Lauridsen A.L., et al. Long-term hormone replacement therapy preserves bone mineral density in Turner syndrome. Eur J Endocrinol 2009, 161:251-257.
123. Khastgir G., Studd J.W., Fox S.W., et al. Alongitudinal study of the effect of subcutaneous estrogen replacement on bone in young women with Turner's syndrome. JBone Miner Res 2003, 18:925-932.
124. Behre H.H., Kliesch S., Leifke E., et al. Long term effect of testosterone therapy on bone mineral density in hypogonadal men. JClin Endocrinol Metab 1997, 82:2386-2390.
125. Amory J.K., Watts N.B., Easley K.A., et al. Exogenous testosterone or testosterone with finasteride increases bone mineral density in older men with low serum testosterone. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2004, 89:503-510.
126. Tracz M., Sideras K., Bolon E.R. Clinical review: testosterone use in men and its effects on bone health. A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2006, 91:2011-2016.
127. Biller B.M., Sesmilo G., Baum H.B., et al. Withdrawal of long-term physiological growth hormone (GH) administration: differential effects on bone density and body composition in men with adult-onset GH deficiency. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2000, 85:970-976.
128. Shalet S.M., Shavrikova E., Cromer M., et al. Effect of growth hormone (GH) treatment on bone in postpubertal GH-deficient patients: a 2-year randomized, controlled, dose-ranging study. JClin Endocrinol Metab 2003, 88:4124-4129.
129. Götherström G., Bengtsson B.A., Bosaeus I., et al. Ten-year GH replacement increases bone mineral density in hypopituitary patients with adult onset GH deficiency. Eur J Endocrinol 2007, 156:55-64.
130. Reimunde P., Quintana A., Castañón B., et al. Effects of growth hormone (GH) replacement and cognitive rehabilitation in patients with cognitive disorders after traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2011, 25:65-73.
131. Kozlowski O., Cortet-Rudelli C., Yollin E., et al. Growth hormone replacement therapy in patients with traumatic brain injury. JNeurotrauma 2013, 30(11):998-1006.
132. Kreitschmann-Andermahr I., Poll E.M., Reineke A., et al. Growth hormone deficient patients after traumatic brain injury-baseline characteristics and benefits after growth hormone replacement-an analysis of the German KIMS database. Growth Horm IGF Res 2008, 18:472-478.
133. High W.M., Briones-Galang M., Clark J.A., et al. Effect of growth hormone replacement therapy on cognition after traumatic brain injury. JNeurotrauma 2010, 27:1565-1575.
134. Tanriverdi F., Unluhizarci K., Karaca Z., et al. Hypopituitarism due to sports related head trauma and the effects of growth hormone replacement in retired amateur boxers. Pituitary 2010, 13:111-114.