Neuroimaging and ADHD: FMRI, PET, DTI findings, and methodological limitations

Developmental Neuropsychology

Volumn 38, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 211-225

  Weyandt, Lisa ^a   Swentosky, Anthony ^a   Gudmundsdottir, Bergljot Gyda ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF RHODE ISLAND   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; BRAIN; BRAIN MAPPING; DIFFUSION TENSOR IMAGING; FUNCTIONAL NEUROIMAGING; HUMAN; METHODOLOGY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; SCINTISCANNING;

ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER WITH HYPERACTIVITY; BRAIN; BRAIN MAPPING; DIFFUSION TENSOR IMAGING; FUNCTIONAL NEUROIMAGING; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; POSITRON-EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY;

EID: 84878274773     PISSN: 87565641     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/87565641.2013.783833     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. Alqahani, M. M. 2010. The comorbidity of ADHD in the general population of Saudi Arabian school-age children. Journal of Attention Disorders, 14: 25-30.
2. American Psychiatric Association. 2000. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision) Washington, DC. Author
3. Arnsten, A. F. 2006. Stimulants: Therapeutic actions in ADHD. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31 (11): 2376-2383. (Pubitemid 44607054)
4. Arnsten, A. F. T., Berridge, C. W., and, McCracken, J. T. 2009. The neurobiological basis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Primary Psychiatry, 16 (7): 47-54.
5. Ashtari, M., Kumra, S., Bhaskar, S. L., Clarke, T., Thaden, E., Cervellione, K. L., and, Ardekani, B. A. 2005. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A preliminary diffusion tensor imaging study. Biological Psychiatry, 57 (5): 448-455. (Pubitemid 40311978)
6. Babinski, D. E., Pelham, W. E., and, Molina, B. S. 2011. Late adolescent and young adult outcomes of girls diagnosed with ADHD in childhood: An exploratory investigation. Journal of Attention Disorders, 15: 204-214.
7. Bailey, D., Townsend, D. W., Valk, P. E., and, Maisey, M. N. 2005. Positron emission tomography: Basic sciences, London, England: Springer-Verlag.
8. Barbaresi, W. J., Katusic, S. K., Colligan, R. C., Weaver, A. L., and, Jacobsen, S. J. 2007. Modifiers of long-term school outcomes for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Does treatment with stimulant medication make a difference? Results from a population-based study. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatric, 28: 274-287. (Pubitemid 47256030)
9. Barkley, R. A. 2006. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment, 3rd, New York, NY: Guilford Press.
10. Batzle, C. S., Weyandt, L. L., Janusis, G., and, DeVietti, T. 2010. The potential impact of an ADHD label on teacher expectations. Journal of Attention Disorders, 14: 157-166.
11. Biederman, J., and, Spencer, T. J. 2008. Psychopharmacological interventions. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 17: 439-458. (Pubitemid 351258358)
12. Cao, Q. 2006. Abnormal neural activity in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroreport, 17: 1033-1036. (Pubitemid 43948280)
13. Cao, Q., Sun, L., Gong, G., Lv, Y., Cao, X., Shuai, L., and, Wang, Y. 2010. The macrostructural and microstructural abnormalities of corpus callosum in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A combined morphometric and diffusion tensor MRI study. Brain Research, 1310: 171-180.
14. Carmona, S., Vilarroya, O., Bielsa, A., Tremols, V., Soliva, J. C., Rovira, M., and, Bulbena, A. 2005. Global and regional graymatter reductions in ADHD: A voxel-based morphometric study. Neuroscience Letters, 389: 88-93. (Pubitemid 41242891)
15. Casey, B. J., Epstein, J. N., Buhle, J., Liston, C., Davidson, M. C., Tonev, S. T., and, Glover, G. 2007. Functional striatal connectivity and its role in cognitive control in parent-child dyads with ADHD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164 (11): 1729-1736. (Pubitemid 350205351)
16. Castellanos, F. X., Giedd, J. N., and, Berquin, P. C. 2001. Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58: 289-295. (Pubitemid 32209683)
17. Castellanos, F. X., Lee, P. P., Sharp, W., Jeffries, N. O., Greenstein, D. K., Clasen, L. S., and, Rapoport, J. L. 2002. Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 288: 1740-1748.
18. Castellanos, F. X., Margulies, D. S., and, Kelly, C. 2008. Cingulate-precuneus interactions: A new locus of dysfunction in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 63: 332-337.
19. Cherkasova, M. V., and, Hechtman, L. 2009. Neuroimaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Beyond the frontostriatal circuitry. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 54 (10): 651-664.
20. Cubillo, A., Halari, R., Ecker, C., Giampietro, V., Taylor, E., and, Rubia, K. 2010. Reduced activation and inter-regional functional connectivity of fronto-striatal networks in adults with childhood attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and persisting symptoms during tasks of motor inhibition and cognitive switching. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 44 (10): 629-639.
21. Davenport, N. D., Karatekin, C., White, T., and, Lim, K. O. 2010. Differential fractional anisotropy abnormalities in adolescents with ADHD or schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 181 (3): 193-198.
22. DePue, B. E., Burgess, G. C., Willcutt, E. G., Ruzik, L., and, Banich, M. T. 2010. Inhibitory control of memory retrieval and motor processing associated with the right lateral prefrontal cortex: Evidence from deficits in individuals with ADHD. Neuropsychologia, 48 (13): 3909-3917.
23. Dickstein, S. G., Bannon, K., Castellanos, F. X., and, Milham, M. P. 2006. The neural correlates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ALE meta-analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47: 1051-1062. (Pubitemid 44642434)
24. Dopheide, J. A., and, Pliszka, S. R. 2009. Attention-deficit- hyperactivity disorder: An update. Pharmacotherapy, 29 (6): 656-679.
25. DuPaul, G. J., and, Weyandt, L. L. 2009. " Behavioral interventions with externalizing disorders ". In Behavioral intervention in schools: Evidence-based positive strategies, Edited by: Akin-Little, A., Little, S., Bray, M. and Kehle, T. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. InEds.
26. DuPaul, G. J., Weyandt, L. L., and, Booster, G. D. 2010. " Psychopharmacological interventions ". In The practical handbook of school psychology: Effective practices for the 21st century, Edited by: Merrell, K., Ervin, R. and Gimpel, G. 475-493. New York, NY: Guilford.
27. DuPaul, G. J., Weyandt, L. L., and, Janusis, G. 2011. ADHD in the classroom: Effective intervention strategies. Theory into Practice, 50: 35-42.
28. Durston, S., Tottenham, N. T., Thomas, K. M., Davidson, M. C., Eigsti, I. M., Yang, Y., and, Casey, B. J. 2003. Differential patterns of striatal activation in young children with and without ADHD. Biological Psychiatry, 53: 871-878. (Pubitemid 36556172)
29. Ernst, M., Grant, S. J., London, E. D., Contoreggi, C. S., Kimes, A. S., and, Spurgeon, L. 2003. Decision making in adolescents with behavior disorders and adults with substance abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160: 33-40. (Pubitemid 36042424)
30. Faraone, S. V. 2009. Using meta-analysis to compare the efficacy of medications for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in youths. P&T, 34 (12): 678-694.
31. Fassbender, C. 2009. A lack of default network suppression is linked to increased distractibility in ADHD. Brain Research, 1273: 114-128.
32. Grimm, S., Beck, J., Schuepbach, D., Hell, D., Boesiger, P., Bermpohl, F., and, Northoff, G. 2008. Imbalance between left and right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in major depression is linked to negative emotional judgment: An fMRI study in severe major depressive disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 63 (4): 369-376.
33. Gusnard, D. A., Raichle, M. E., and, Raichle, M. E. 2001. Searching for a baseline: Functional imaging and the resting human brain. Nature reviews. Neuroscience, 2 (10): 685-694. (Pubitemid 33674814)
34. Hamilton, L. S., Levitt, J. G., O'Neill, J., Alger, J. R., Luders, E., Phillips, O. R., and, Narr, K. L. 2008. Reduced white matter integrity in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuroreport, 19: 1705-1708.
35. Hasan, K. M., Molfese, D. L., Wilimuni, I. S., Stuebing, K. K., Papanicolaou, A. C., Naravana, P. A., and, Fletcher, J. M. 2012. Diffusion tensor quantification and cognitive correlates of the macrostructure and microstructure of the corpus callosum in typically developing and dyslexic children. NMR in Biomedicine, 25 (11): 1263-1270.
36. Hill, D. E., Yeo, R. A., Campbell, R. A., Hart, B., Vigil, J., and, Brooks, W. 2003. Magnetic resonance imaging correlates of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in children. Neuropsychology, 17: 496-506. (Pubitemid 37013160)
37. Hinshaw, S. P. 2002. Preadolescent girls with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: I. Background characteristics, comorbidity, cognitive and social functioning, and parenting practices. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70: 1086-1098.
38. Jucaite, A., Fernell, E., Halldin, C., Forssberg, H., and, Farde, L. 2005. Reduced midbrain dopamine transporter binding in male adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Association between striatal dopamine markers and motor hyperactivity. Biological Psychiatry, 57: 229-238. (Pubitemid 40187366)
39. Kaataoka, K., Hashimoto, H., Kawabe, J., Higashiyama, S., Akiyama, H., Shimada, A., and, Kiriike, N. 2010. Frontal hypoperfusion in depressed patients with dementia of Alzheimer type demonstrated on 3DSRT. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 64 (3): 293-298.
40. Kelly, A. M. C., Margulies, D. S., and, Castellanos, F. X. 2007. Recent advances in structural and functional brain imaging studies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Current Psychiatry Reports, 9: 401-407. (Pubitemid 47559361)
41. Kobel, M., Bechtel, N., Specht, K., Klarhöfer, M., Weber, P., Scheffler, K., and, Penner, I. K. 2010. Structural and functional imaging approaches in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Does the temporal lobe play a key role?. Psychiatry Research: Neuorimaging, 183: 230-238.
42. Konrad, A., Dielentheis, T. F., El Masri, D., Bayerl, M., Fehr, C., Gesierich, T., and, Winterer, G. 2010. Disturbed structural connectivity is related to inattention and impulsivity in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. European Journal of Neuroscience, 31: 912-919.
43. Konrad, K., and, Eickhoff, S. B. 2010. Is the ADHD brain wired differently? A review on structural and functional connectivity in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Human Brain Mapping, 31: 904-916.
44. LaForett, D. R., Murray, D. W., and, Kollins, S. H. 2008. Psychosocial treatments for preschool-aged children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Disability Research Review, 14: 300-310.
45. Langley, K., Fowler, T., Ford, T., Thapar, A. K., van den Bree, M., Harold, G., and, Thapar, A. 2010. Adolescent clinical outcomes for young people with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 196: 235-240.
46. Lara, C., Fayyad, J., de Graaf, R., Kessler, R. C., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Angermeyer, M., and, Sampson, N. 2009. Childhood predictors of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: results from the World Health Organization World Mental Health Survey Initiative. Biological Psychiatry, 65 (1): 46-54.
47. Le Bihan, D. 2003. Looking into the functional architecture of the brain with diffusion MRI. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 4 (6): 469-480. (Pubitemid 37280168)
48. Loe, I. M., and, Feldman, H. M. 2007. Academic and educational outcomes of children with ADHD. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32: 643-654. (Pubitemid 47356042)
49. Logothetis, N. K. 2008. What we can do and what we cannot do with fMRI. Nature, 453 (7197): 869-878. (Pubitemid 351832564)
50. Lotze, M., Reimold, M., Heymans, U., Laihinen, A., Patt, M., and, Halsband, U. 2009. Reduced ventrolateral fMRI response during observation of emotional gestures related to the degree of dopaminergic impairment in Parkinson disease. Journal of Cognitive Neuorscience, 21 (7): 1321-1331.
51. Lou, H. C., Henriksen, L., and, Bruhn, P. 1984. Focal cerebral hypoperfusion in children with dysphasia and/or attention deficit disorder. Archives of Neurology, 41: 825-829. (Pubitemid 14091724)
52. Ludolph, A. G., Kassubek, J., Schmek, K., Glaser, C., Wunderlich, A., Buck, A. K., and, Mottaghy, F. M. 2008. Dopaminergic dysfunction in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), differences between pharmacologically treated and never treated young adults: A 3, 4-dihdroxy-6-[18F]fluorophenyl-l- alanine PET study. Neuroimage, 41 (3): 718-727.
53. Makris, N., Buka, S. L., Biederman, J., Papadimitriou, G. M., Hodge, S. M., Valera, E. M., and, Seidman, L. J. 2008. Attention and executive systems abnormalities in adults with childhood ADHD: A DT-MRI study of connections. Cerebral Cortex, 18 (5): 1210-1220.
54. McGough, J. J., Smalley, S. L., McCracken, J. T., Yang, M., Del'Homme, M., Lynn, D. E., and, Loo, S. 2005. Psychiatric comorbidity in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Findings from multiplex families. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162 (9): 1621-1627. (Pubitemid 41318230)
55. Mori, S., and, Zhang, J. 2006. Principles of diffusion tensor imaging and its applications to basic neuroscience approach. Neuron, 51 (5): 527-539. (Pubitemid 44301829)
56. Murphy, K. R., Barkley, R. A., and, Bush, T. 2002. Young adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Subtype differences in comorbidity, educational, and clinical history. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190 (3): 147-157. (Pubitemid 34263944)
57. Nigg, J., and, Casey, B. 2005. An integrative theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder based on the cognitive and affective neurosciences. Developmental Psychopathology, 17: 785-806.
58. Owens, J. S., Richerson, L., Beilstein, E. A., Crane, A., Murphy, C. E., and, Vancouver, J. B. 2005. School-based mental health programming for children with inattentive and disruptive behavior problems: First-year treatment outcome. Journal of Attention Disorders, 9: 261-274. (Pubitemid 41551758)
59. Papanicolaou, A. C. 1998. Fundamentals of functional brain imaging: A guide to the methods and their applications to psychology and behavioral neurosciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
60. Pavuluri, M. N., Yang, S., Kamineni, K., Passarotti, A. M., Srinivasan, G., Harral, E. M., and, Xiaohong, J. Z. 2009. Diffusion tensor imaging study of white matter fiber tracts in pediatric bipolar disorder and attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 65: 586-593.
61. Peterson, B. S., Potenza, M. N., Wang, Z., Zhu, H., Martin, A., Marsh, R., and, Yu, S. 2009. An fMRI study of the effects of psychostimulants on default-mode processing during stroop task performance in youths with ADHD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166: 1286-1294.
62. Pfiffner, L. J., Barkley, R. A., and, DuPaul, G. J. 2006. " Treatment of ADHD in school settings ". In Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment, 3rd ed., Edited by: Barkley, R.A. 547-589. New York, NY: Guilford. InEd.pp.
63. Pihlajamaki, M., O'Keefe, K., Bertram, L., Tanzi, R., Dickerson, B. C., Blacker, D., and, Sperling, R. A. 2010. Evidence of altered posteromedial cortical FMRI activity in subjects at risk for Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer's Disease and Associated Disorders, 24 (1): 28-36.
64. Reeves, D., Mills, M. J., Billick, S. B., and, Brodie, J. D. 2003. Limitations of brain imaging in forensic psychiatry. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 31 (1): 89-96. (Pubitemid 36384061)
65. Rubia, K. 2002. The dynamic approach to neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders: Use of fMRI combined with neuropsychology to elucidate the dynamics of psychiatric disorders, exemplified in ADHD and schizophrenia. Behavioral Brain Research, 130: 47-56. (Pubitemid 34195320)
66. Rubia, K., Halari, R., Cubillo, A., Brammer, M., and, Taylor, E. 2009a. Methylphenidate normalises activation and functional connectivity deficits in attention and motivation networks in medication-naïve children with ADHD during a rewarded continuous performance task. Neuropharmacology, 57: 640-652.
67. Rubia, K., Halari, R., Smith, A. B., Mohammad, M., Scott, S., and, Brammer, M. J. 2009b. Shared and disorder-specific prefrontal abnormalities in boys with pure attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder compared to boys with pure CD during interference inhibition and attention allocation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50 (6): 669-678.
68. Rubia, K., Smith, A. B., Brammer, M. J., and, Taylor, E. 2007. Temporal lobe dysfunction in medication naive boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during attention allocation and its relation to response variability. Biological Psychiatry, 62: 999-1006. (Pubitemid 47562367)
69. Schilbach, L., Eickhoff, S. B., Rotarska-Jagiela, A., Gereon, F. R., and, Vogeley, K. 2008. Minds at rest? Social cognition as the default mode of cognizing and its putative relationship to the "default system" of the brain. Conscious Cognition, 17 (2): 457-467.
70. Schneider, M. F., Krick, C. M., Retz, W., Hengesch, G., Retz-Junginger, P., Reith, W., and, Rösler, M. 2010. Impairment of fronto-striatal and parietal cerebral networks correlates with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) psychopathology in adults-A functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 183: 75-84.
71. Sharp, S. I., McQuillin, A., and, Gurling, H. M. 2009. Genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neuropharmacology, 57: 590-600.
72. Silk, T., Vance, A., Rinehart, N., Egan, G., O'Boyle, M., Bradshaw, J. L., and, Cunnington, R. 2005. Fronto-parietal activation in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, combined type: Functional magnetic imaging study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 187: 282-283. (Pubitemid 41306111)
73. Silk, T. J., Vance, A., Rinehart, N., Bradshaw, J. L., and, Cunnington, R. 2008. Dysfunction in the fronto-parietal network in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): An fMRI study. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 2: 123-131.
74. Silk, T. J., Vance, A., Rinehart, N., Bradshaw, J. L., and, Cunnington, R. 2009. White-matter abnormalities in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A diffusion tensor imaging study. Human Brain Mapping, 30: 2757-2765.
75. Smith, A. B., Taylor, E., Brammer, M., Toone, B., and, Rubia, K. 2006. Task-specific hypoactivation in prefrontal and temporoparietal brain regions during motor inhibition and task switching in medication-naïve children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163: 1044-1051. (Pubitemid 44464491)
76. Sonuga-Barke, E. J., and, Castellanos, F. X. 2007. Spontaneous attentional fluctuations in impaired states and pathological conditions: A neurobiological hypothesis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 31: 977-986. (Pubitemid 47332617)
77. Spencer, T. J., Biederman, J., Madras, B. K., Dougherty, D. D., Bonab, A. A., Livni, E., and, Fischman, A. J. 2007. Further evidence of dopamine transporter dysregulation in ADHD: A controlled PET imaging study using altropane. Biological Psychiatry 2007, 62: 1059-1061. (Pubitemid 47562362)
78. Spencer, T. J., Biederman, J., Madras, B. K., Faraone, S. V., Dougherty, D. D., Bonab, A. A., and, Fishman, A. J. 2005. In vivo neuroreceptor imaging in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A focus on the dopamine transporter. Biological Psychiatry, 57: 1293-1300. (Pubitemid 40798548)
79. Stuss, D. T., and, Alexander, M. P. 2000. Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A conceptual view. Psychological Research, 63: 289-298.
80. Takahashi, R., Ishii, K., Shimada, K., Ohkawa, S., and, Nishimura, Y. 2010. Hypoperfusion of the motor cortex associated with parkinsonism in dementia with Lewy bodies. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 288 (1-2): 88-91.
81. Tripp, G., and, Wickens, J. R. 2009. Neurobiology of ADHD. Neuropharmacology, 57: 579-589.
82. Valera, E. M., Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Poldrack, R. A., and, Seidman, L. J. 2005. Functional neuroanatomy of working memory in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57: 439-447. (Pubitemid 40311977)
83. Vance, A., Silk, T. J., Casey, M., Rinehart, N. J., Bradshaw, J. L., Bellgrove, M. A., and, Cunnington, R. 2007. Right parietal dysfunction in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, combined type: a functional MRI study. Molecular Psychiatry, 12: 826-832. (Pubitemid 47347794)
84. Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., and, Ding, Y. S. 2005. Imaging the effects of methylphenidate on brain dopamine: New model on its therapeutic actions for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57: 1410-1415. (Pubitemid 40798562)
85. Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., and, Newcorn, J. 2007. Depressed dopamine activity in caudate and preliminary evidence of limbic involvement in adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64: 932-940. (Pubitemid 47230617)
86. Wake, R., Miyaoka, T., Kawakami, K. Tsuchie, K., Inagaki, T., Horiguchi, J., and, Kitagaki, H. 2010. Characteristic brain hypoperfusion by 99mTc-ECD single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) in patients with the first-episode schizophrenia. European Psychiatry, 25 (6): 361-365.
87. Weyandt, L. 2006. The physiological bases of cognitive and behavioral disorders, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates.
88. Weyandt, L. L., and, Willis, W. G. 1994. Executive functions in school-aged children: Potential efficacy of tasks in discriminating clinical groups. Developmental Neuropsychology, 10: 27-38.
89. Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., and, Pennington, B. F. 2005. Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry, 57: 1336-1346. (Pubitemid 40798553)
90. Williams, L. M., Tsang, T. W., Clarke, S., and, Kohn, M. 2010. An "integrative neuroscience" perspective on ADHD: Linking cognition, emotion, brain and genetic measures with implications for clinical support. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 10 (10): 1607-1621.
91. Wolf, R. C., Plichta, M. M., Sambataro, F., Fallgatter, A. J., Jacob, C., Lesch, K. P., and, Schönfeldt, C. 2009. Regional brain activation changes and abnormal functional connectivity of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex during working memory processing in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Human Brain Mapping, 30: 2252-2266.
92. Zimmer, L. 2009. Positron emission tomography neuroimaging for a better understanding of the biology of ADHD. Neuropharmacology, 57: 601-607.