Getting a grip on tetrapod grasping: Form, function, and evolution

Biological Reviews

Volumn 88, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 380-405

  Sustaita, Diego ^a   Pouydebat, Emmanuelle ^b   Manzano, Adriana ^c   Abdala, Virginia ^d   Hertel, Fritz ^e   Herrel, Anthony ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT   (United States)

^b CNRS   (France)

^c CONICET UADER ^*  (Argentina)

^d FUNDACIÓN MIGUEL LILLO   (Argentina)

^e CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Amphibians; Biomechanics; Birds; Dexterity; Digits; Feeding; Grasping; Grip force; Lizards; Locomotion; Mammals; Manus; Morphology; Pes; Tetrapods

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; ARTICLE; EVOLUTION; HISTOLOGY; LIMB; PHYSIOLOGY; VERTEBRATE;

ANIMALS; BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; EXTREMITIES; VERTEBRATES;

AMPHIBIA; AVES; MAMMALIA; SQUAMATA; TESTUDINES; TETRAPODA;

EID: 84875808113     PISSN: 14647931     EISSN: 1469185X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/brv.12010     Document Type: Article

References (287)

1. Abdala, V. & Diogo, R. (2010). Comparative anatomy, homologies and evolution of the pectoral and forelimb musculature of tetrapods with special attention to extant limbed amphibians and reptiles. Journal of Anatomy 217, 536-573.
2. Abdala, V., Manzano, A. S. & Herrel, A. (2008). The distal forelimb musculature in aquatic and terrestrial turtles: phylogeny or environmental constraints? Journal of Anatomy 213, 159-172.
3. Abdala, V., Manzano, A. S., Tulli, M. J. & Herrel, A. (2009). The tendinous patterns in the palmar surface of the lizard manus: functional consequences for grasping ability. The Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology 292, 842-853.
4. Alfaro, M. E., Bolnick, D. I. & Wainwright, P. C. (2005). Evolutionary consequences of many-to-one mapping of jaw morphology to mechanics in labrid fishes. The American Naturalist 165, 140-154.
5. Argot, C. (2002). Functional-adaptive analysis of the hindlimb anatomy of extant marsupials and the paleobiology of the Paleocene marsupials Mayulestes ferox and Pucadelphys andinus. Journal of Morphology 253, 76-108.
6. Arnold, S. J. (1983). Morphology, performance and fitness. American Zoologist 23, 347-361.
7. Barbeau, T. R. & Lillywhite, H. B. (2005). Body wiping behaviors associated with cutaneous lipids in hylid tree frogs of Florida. Journal of Experimental Biology 208, 2147-2156.
8. Bell, E., Andres, B. & Goswami, A. (2011). Integration and dissociation of limb elements in flying vertebrates: a comparison of pterosaurs, birds and bats. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 24, 2586-2599.
9. Berman, S. L. (1984). The hindlimb musculature of the white-fronted amazon (Amazona albifrons, Psittaciformes). Auk 101, 74-92.
10. Berman, S. L. & Raikow, R. J. (1982). The hindlimb musculature of the mousebirds (Coliiformes). Auk 99, 41-57.
11. Biju, S. D. (2009). A novel nesting behaviour of a treefrog, Rhacophorus lateralis in the Western Ghats, India. Current Science 97, 433-437.
12. Biondi, L. M., Bo, M. S. & Vassallo, A. I. (2008). Experimental assessment of problem solving by Milvago chimango (Aves: Falconiformes). Journal of Ethology 26, 113-118.
13. Bishop, A. (1964). Use of the lower hand in primates. In Evolutionary and Genetic Biology of Primates (Volume 2 ed. J. J. Buettner-JANUSCH ), pp. 133-225. Academic Press, New York.
14. Blaylock, L., Ruibal, R. & Platt-ALOIA, K. (1976). Skin structure and wiping behavior of Phyllomedusinae frogs. Copeia 1976, 283-295.
15. Bock, W. J. (1965). Experimental analysis of the avian passive perching mechanism. American Zoologist 5, 681.
16. Bock, W. J. & Miller, W. D. (1959). The scansorial foot of the woodpeckers, with comments on the evolution of perching and climbing feet in birds. American Museum Novitates 1931, 1-45.
17. Boczek-Funcke, A., Kuhtz-Buschbeck, J. P., Raethjen, J., Paschmeyer, B. & Illert, M. (1998). Shaping of the cat paw for food taking and object manipulation: an X-ray analysis. European Journal of Neuroscience 10, 3885-3897.
18. Boyer, D. M., Patel, B. A., Larson, S. G. & Sternjr, J. T. (2007). Telemetered electromyography of peroneus longus in Varecia variegata and Eulemur rubriventer: implications for the functional significance of an enlarged peroneal process. Journal of Human Evolution 53, 119-134.
19. Bracha, V., Zhuravin, I. A. & Bures, J. (1990). The reaching reaction in the rat - a part of the digging pattern. Behavioural Brain Research 36, 53-64.
20. Brinkman, D. (1980). Structural correlates of tarsal and metatarsal functioning in Iguana (Lacertilia; Iguanidae) and other lizards. Canadian Journal of Zoology 58, 277-289.
21. Brown, L. H. & Amadon, D. (1968). Eagles, Hawks, and Falcons of the World. Wellfleet Press, Secaucus.
22. Brown, C. & Magat, M. (2011). The evolution of lateralized foot use in parrots: a phylogenetic approach. Behavioral Ecology 22, 1201-1208.
23. Burns, R. B. & Wight, P. A. L. (1970). The distribution of Herbst corpuscles in the foot of the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus). Research in Veterinary Science 11, 585-587.
24. Burton, P. J. K. (1978). The intertarsal joint of the harrier-hawks Polyboroides spp. and the crane hawk Geranospiza caerulescens. Ibis 120, 171-177.
25. Burton, T. C. (1996). Adaptation and evolution in the hand muscles of Australo-Papuan hylid frogs (Anura: Hylidae: Pelodryadinae). Australian Journal of Zoology 44, 611-623.
26. Burton, T. C. (1998a). Are the distal extensor muscles of the fingers of anuran an adaptation to arboreality? Journal of Herpetology 32, 611-617.
27. Burton, T. C. (1998b). Variation in the hand and superficial throat musculature of Neotropical leptodactylid frogs. Herpetologica 54, 53-72.
28. Byrne, R. W. & Corp, N. (2001). Manual dexterity in the gorilla: bimanual and digit role differentiation in a natural task. Animal Cognition 4, 347-361.
29. Byron, C., Kunz, H., Matuszek, H., Lewis, S. & Van VALKINBURGH, D. (2011). Rudimentary pedal grasping in mice and implications for terminal branch arboreal quadrupedalism. Journal of Morphology 272, 230-240.
30. Cade, T. J. (1982). The Falcons of the World. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.
31. Carrascal, L. M., Moreno, E. & Valido, A. (1994). Morphological evolution and changes in foraging behavior of island and mainland populations of blue tit (Parus caeruleus) - a test of convergence and ecomorphological hypotheses. Evolutionary Ecology 8, 25-35.
32. Cartmill, M. (1972). Arboreal adaptations and the origin of the order of Primates. In The Functional and Evolutionary Biology of Primates (ed. R. H. Tuttle ), pp. 97-122. Aldine Atherton, Chicago.
33. Cartmill, M. (1974a). Pads and claws in arboreal locomotion. In Primate Locomotion (ed. F. A. Jenkins Jr.), pp. 45-83. Academic Press, New York.
34. Cartmill, M. (1974b). Rethinking primate origins. Science 184, 436-443.
35. Cartmill, M. (1985). Climbing. In Functional Vertebrate Morphology (eds M. Hildebrand, D. Bramble, K. Liem and D. Wake ), pp. 73-88. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
36. Chiu, C. H. & Hamrick, M. W. (2002). Evolution and development of the primate limb skeleton. Evolutionary Anthropology 11, 94-107.
37. Christel, M. (1993). Grasping techniques and hand preference in hominoidea. In Hands of Primates (eds H. Preuschoft and D. Chivers ), pp. 91-108. Springer, Berlin.
38. Christel, M. I. & Billard, A. (2002). Comparison between macaques' and humans' kinematics of prehension: the role of morphological differences and control mechanisms. Behavioural Brain Research 131, 169-184.
39. Christel, M., Weiss, P. & Bavar, S. (1998). How precisely do non-humans primates grasp small objects? A comparison of performances and between-hand differences with humans. Folia Primatologica 69, 206.
40. Clark, G. A. J. (1973). Holding food with the feet in passerines. Bird-Banding 44, 91-99.
41. Congdon, K. (2012). Interspecific and ontogenetic variation in proximal pedal phalangeal curvature of Great Apes (Gorilla gorilla, Pan troglodytes, and Pongo pygmaeus). International Journal of Primatology 33, 418-427.
42. Csermely, D. (2000). Footedness bias in hunting birds of prey. In Raptors at Risk (eds R. D. Chancellor and B.-U. Meyburg ), pp. 885-889. World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls Hancock House Publishers Ltd., Berlin, Blaine.
43. Csermely, D., BertÈ, L. & Camoni, R. (1998). Prey killing by Eurasian kestrels: the role of the foot and the significance of bill and talons. Journal of Avian Biology 29, 10-16.
44. Csermely, D. & Gaibani, G. (1998). Is foot squeezing pressure by two raptor species sufficient to subdue their prey? Condor 100, 757-763.
45. Csermely, D. & Rossi, O. (2006). Bird claws and bird of prey talons: where is the difference? Italian Journal of Zoology 73, 43-53.
46. Cutkosky, M. R. (1989). On grasp choice, grasp models, and the design of hands for manufacturing tasks. IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation 5, 269-279.
47. Cutkosky, M. R. & Howe, R. D. (1990). Human grasp choice and robotic grasp analysis. In Dextrous Robot Hands (eds S. T. Venkatataman and T. Iberall ), pp. 5-31. Springer-Verlag, New York.
48. Cutkosky, M. R. & Wright, P. K. (1986). Friction, stability and the design of robotic fingers. International Journal of Robotics Research 5, 20-37.
49. Dagosto, M. (2007). The postcranial morphotype of primates. In Primate Origins: Adaptations and Evolution (eds M. Dagosto and M. J. Ravosa ), pp. 489-534. Springer, New York.
50. Diogo, R. & Abdala, V. (2010). Muscles of Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Evolution, Homologies and Development. Science Publishers, Enfield.
51. Diogo, R., Richmond, B. G. & Wood, B. (2012). Evolution and homologies of primate and modern human hand and forearm muscles, with notes on thumb movements and tool use. Journal of Human Evolution 63, 64-78.
52. Diogo, R. & Wood, B. (2011). Soft-tissue anatomy of the primates: phylogenetic analyses based on the muscles of the head, neck, pectoral region and upper limb, with notes on the evolution of these muscles. Journal of Anatomy 219, 273-359.
53. Dollar, A. M. & Howe, R. D. (2011). Joint coupling design of underactuated hands for unstructured environments. International Journal of Robotics Research 30, 1157-1169.
54. Doyle, C. E., Bird, J. J., Isom, T. A., Johnson, C. J., Kallman, J. C., Simpson, J. A., King, R. J., Abbott, J. J. & Minor, A. (2011). Avian-inspired passive perching mechanism for robotic rotorcraft. In 2011 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, pp. 4975-4980. San Francisco.
55. Einoder, L. & Richardson, A. (2006). An ecomorphological study of the raptorial digital tendon locking mechanism. Ibis 148, 515-525.
56. Einoder, L. D. & Richardson, A. M. M. (2007a). Aspects of the hindlimb morphology of some Australian birds of prey: a comparative and quantitative study. Auk 124, 773-788.
57. Einoder, L. & Richardson, A. (2007b). The digital tendon locking mechanism of owls: variation in the structure and arrangement of the mechanism and functional implications. Emu 107, 223-230.
58. Emerson, S. B. & Diehl, D. (1980). Toe pad morphology and mechanisms of sticking in frogs. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 13, 199-216.
59. Endo, H., Hama, N., Niizawa, N., Kimura, J., Itou, T., Koie, H. & Sakai, T. (2007). Three-dimensional analysis of the manipulation system in the lesser panda. Mammal Study 32, 99-103.
60. Erickson, C. J. (1991). Percussive foraging in the aye-aye, Daubentonia madagascariensis. Animal Behaviour 41, 793-801.
61. Erickson, C. J., Nowicki, S., Dollar, L. & Goehring, N. (1998). Percussive foraging: stimuli for prey location by aye-ayes (Daubentonia madagascariensis). International Journal of Primatology 19, 111-122.
62. Essner, R. L., Suffian, D. J., Bishop, P. J. & Reilly, S. M. (2010). Landing in basal frogs: evidence of saltational patterns in the evolution of anuran locomotion. Naturwissenschaften 97, 935-939.
63. Estes, R. D. (1991). The Behavior Guide to African Mammals. University of California Press, Los Angeles.
64. Ewer, R. F. (1973). The Carnivores. Weidenfled and Nicholson, London.
65. Feduccia, A. (1993). Evidence from claw geometry indicating arboreal habits of Archaeopteryx. Science 259, 790-793.
66. Feduccia, A. (1999). The Origin and Evolution of Birds. Second Edition. Yale University Press, New Haven.
67. Feinsinger, P. & Colwell, R. K. (1978). Community organization among Neotropical nectar-feeding birds. American Zoologist 18, 779-795.
68. Fischer, M. S., Krause, C. & Lilje, K. E. (2010). Evolution of chameleon locomotion, or how to become arboreal as a reptile. Zoology 113, 67-74.
69. Fowler, D. W., Freedman, E. A. & Scannella, J. B. (2009). Predatory functional morphology in raptors: interdigital variation in talon size is related to prey restraint and immobilisation technique. PLoS ONE 4, e7999.
70. Fowler, D. W., Freedman, E. A., Scannella, J. B. & Kambic, R. E. (2011). The predatory ecology of Deinonychus and the origin of flapping in birds. PLoS ONE 6, e28964.
71. Frost, D. R., Grant, T., Faivovich, J., Bain, R. H., Haas, A., Haddad, C. F. B., De Sá, R. O., Channing, A., Wilkinson, M., Donnellan, S. C., Raxworthy, C. J., Campbell, J. A., Blotto, B. L., Moler, P., Drewes, R. C., Nussbaum, R. A., Lynch, J. D., Green, D. M. & Wheeler, W. C. (2006). The amphibian tree of life. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 297, 1-370.
72. Gadow, H. (1896). Muscular system. In A Dictionary of Birds (ed. A. Newton ), pp. 602-620. Black, London.
73. Galton, P. M. & Shepherd, J. D. (2012). Experimental analysis of perching in the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris: Passeriformes; Passeres), and the automatic perching mechanism of birds. Journal of Experimental Zoology, Part A: Ecological Genetics and Physiology 317, 205-215.
74. Gans, C. & Parsons, T. S. (1966). On the origin of the jumping mechanism in frogs. Evolution 20, 92-99.
75. Gatesy, S. M. & Dial, K. P. (1996). Locomotor modules and the evolution of avian flight. Evolution 50, 331-340.
76. Gatesy, S. M. & Middleton, K. M. (1997). Bipedalism, flight, and the evolution of theropod locomotor diversity. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 17, 308-329.
77. Gebo, D. L. (1985). The nature of the primate grasping foot. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 67, 269-277.
78. Gebo, D. L. (1993). Functional morphology of the foot in primates. In Postcranial Adaptation in Nonhuman Primates (ed. D. L. Gebo ), pp. 175-196. Northern Illinois University Press, DeKalb.
79. Goslow, G. E. Jr. (1972). Adaptive mechanisms of the raptor pelvic limb. Auk 89, 47-64.
80. Gottschaldt, K.-M. (1985). Structure and function of avian somatosensory receptors. In Form and Function in Birds (Volume 3 eds A. S. King and J. Mclelland ), pp. 375-461. Academic Press, London.
81. Grand, T. I. (1977). Body weight: its relation to tissue composition, segment distribution, and motor function. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 47, 211-240.
82. Grand, T. I. (1983). Body weight: its relationship to tissue composition, segmental distribution of mass, and motor function III. The Didelphidae of French Guyana. Australian Journal of Zoology 31, 299-312.
83. Gray, L. A., O'REILLY, J. C. & Nishikawa, K. C. (1997). Evolution of forelimb movement patterns for prey manipulation in anurans. The Journal of Experimental Zoology 277, 417-424.
84. Grelle, C. (2003). Forest structure and vertical stratification of small mammals in a secondary Atlantic forest, southeastern Brazil. Studies on Neotropical Fauna and Environment 32, 81-85.
85. Grillner, S. & Wallen, P. (1985). Central pattern generators for locomotion, with special reference to vertebrates. Annual Review of Neuroscience 8, 233-261.
86. Grzimek, B. (1990). Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals. McGraw-Hill, New York.
87. Hackett, S. J., Kimball, R. T., Reddy, S., Bowie, R. C. K., Braun, E. L., Braun, M. J., Chojnowski, J. L., Cox, W. A., Han, K. L., Harshman, J., Huddleston, C. J., Marks, B. D., Miglia, K. J., Moore, W. S., Sheldon, F. H., Steadman, D. W., Witt, C. C. & Yuri, T. (2008). A phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history. Science 320, 1763-1768.
88. Haffner, M. (1996). A tendon-locking mechanism in two climbing rodents, Muscardinus avellanarius and Micromys minutus (Mammalia, Rodentia). Journal of Morphology 229, 219-227.
89. Haines, R. W. (1950). The flexor muscles of the forearm and hand in lizards and mammals. Journal of Anatomy 84, 13-29.
90. Hamrick, M. W. (1998). Functional and adaptive significance of primate pads and claws: evidence from New World anthropoids. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 106, 113-127.
91. Hamrick, M. W. (2001a). Development and evolution of the mammalian limb: adaptive diversification of nails, hooves, and claws. Evolution & Development 3, 355-363.
92. Hamrick, M. W. (2001b). Morphological diversity in digital skin microstructure of didelphid marsupials. Journal of Anatomy 198, 683-688.
93. Hamrick, M. W. (2001c). Primate origins: evolutionary change in digital ray patterning and segmentation. Journal of Human Evolution 40, 339-351.
94. Hamrick, M. W. (2003). Evolution and development of mammalian limb integumentary structures. Journal of Experimental Zoology, Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution 298B, 152-163.
95. Hamrick, M. W., Rosenman, B. A. & Brush, J. A. (1999). Phalangeal morphology of the paromomyidae (Primates, Plesiadapiformes): the evidence for gliding behavior reconsidered. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 109, 397-413.
96. Hanna, G. & Barnes, W. J. P. (1991). Adhesion and detachment of the toe pads of tree frogs. Journal of Experimental Biology 155, 103-125.
97. Harris, T. (1984). Prey immobilisation by the Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus. In Proceedings of the Second Symposium on African Predatory Birds (eds J. M. Mendelson and C. W. Sapford ), pp. 195-207. Natal Bird Club, Durban.
98. Harris, L. J. (1989). Footedness in parrots: three centuries of research, theory, and mere surmise. Canadian Journal of Psychology 43, 369-396.
99. Herrel, A., Measey, G. J., Vanhooydonck, B. & Tolley, K. A. (2011). Functional consequences of morphological differentiation between populations of the Cape Dwarf Chameleon (Bradypodion pumilum). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 104, 692-700.
100. Herrel, A., Schaerlaeken, V., Ross, C., Meyers, J., Nishikawa, K., Abdala, V., Manzano, A. & Aerts, P. (2008a). Electromyography and the evolution of motor control: limitations and insights. Integrative and Comparative Biology 48, 261-271.
101. Herrel, A., Vanhooydonck, B., Porck, J. & Irschick, D. J. (2008b). Anatomical basis of differences in locomotor behavior in Anolis lizards: a comparison between two ecomorphs. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 159, 213-238.
102. Herrel, A., Tolley, K. A., Measey, G. J., da Silva, J. M., Potgieter, D. F., Boller, E., Boistel, R. & Vanhooydonck, B. (2012). Slow but tenacious: an analysis of running and gripping performance in chameleons. Journal of Experimental Biology. doi: 10.1242/jeb.078618
103. Hershkovitz, P. (1977). Living New World Monkeys (Platyrrhini), Volume 1: With an Introduction to Primates. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
104. Hertel, F. (1995). Ecomorphological indicators of feeding behavior in recent and fossil raptors. Auk 112, 890-903.
105. Hertel, F. & Campbell, K. E. (2007). The antitrochanter of birds: form and function in balance. Auk 124, 789-805.
106. Higham, T. E. & Jayne, B. C. (2004). Locomotion of lizards on inclines and perches: hindlimb kinematics of an arboreal specialist and a terrestrial generalist. Journal of Experimental Biology 207, 233-248.
107. Hoffstetter, R. (1977). Phylogénie des primates. Confrontation des résultats obtenus par les diverses voies d'approche du problème. Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris 4, 327-346.
108. Hopson, J. A. (2001). Ecomorphology of avian and nonavian theropod phalangeal proportions: implications for the arboreal versus terrestrial origin of bird flight. In New Perspectives on the Origin and Early Evolution of Birds: Proceedings of the International Symposium in Honor of John H. Ostrom (eds J. Gauthier and L. F. Gall ), pp. 211-235. Yale University, New Haven.
109. Horn, H.-G. & Visser, G. J. (1997). Review of reproduction of monitor lizards Varanus spp in captivity 2. International Zoo Yearbook 35, 227-246.
110. Hutchinson, J. R. (2002). The evolution of hindlimb tendons and muscles on the line to crown-group birds. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology 133, 1051-1086.
111. Hutchinson, J. R. (2004). Biomechanical modeling and sensitivity analysis of bipedal running ability. I. Extant taxa. Journal of Morphology 262, 421-440.
112. Irschick, D. J. & Garland, T. J. (2001). Integrating function and ecology in studies of adaptation: investigations of locomotor capacity as a model system. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 32, 367-396.
113. Ivanco, T. L., Pellis, S. M. & Whishaw, I. Q. (1996). Skilled forelimb movements in prey catching and in reaching by rats (Rattus norvegicus) and opossums (Monodelphis domestica): relations to anatomical differences in motor systems. Behavioural Brain Research 79, 163-181.
114. Iwaniuk, A. N., Nelson, J. E., Ivanco, T. L., Pellis, S. M. & Whishaw, I. Q. (1998). Reaching, grasping and manipulation of food objects by two tree kangaroo species, Dendrolagus lumholtzi and Dendrolagus matschiei. Australian Journal of Zoology 46, 235-248.
115. Iwaniuk, A. N., Nelson, J. E. & Whishaw, I. Q. (1999). The relationships between brain regions and forelimb dexterity in marsupials (Marsupialia): a comparative test of the principle of proper mass. Australian Journal of Zoology 48, 99-110.
116. Iwaniuk, A. N. & Whishaw, I. Q. (1999a). Brain size is not correlated with forelimb dexterity in fissiped carnivores (Carnivora): a comparative test of the principle of proper mass. Brain, Behavior and Evolution 54, 167-180.
117. Iwaniuk, A. N. & Whishaw, I. Q. (1999b). How skilled are the skilled limb movements of the raccoon (Procyon lotor)? Behavioural Brain Research 99, 35-44.
118. Iwaniuk, A. N. & Whishaw, I. Q. (2000). On the origins of skilled forelimb movements. Trends in Neurosciences 23, 372-376.
119. Izawa, E. I., Kusayama, T. & Watanabe, S. (2005). Foot-use laterality in the Japanese jungle crow (Corvus macrorhynchos). Behavioural Processes 69, 357-362.
120. Jeannerod, M. (1988). The Neural and Behavioural Organization of Goal-Directed Movements. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
121. Jones-Engel, L. E. & Bard, K. A. (1996). Precision grips in young chimpanzees. American Journal of Primatology 39, 1-15.
122. Jouffroy, F. K., Godinot, M. & Nakano, Y. (1991). Biometrical characteristics of primate hands. Human Evolution 6, 269-306.
123. Jouffroy, F. K. & Lessertisseur, J. (1979). Relationships between limb morphology and locomotor adaptations among prosimians: an osteometric study. In Environment, Behavior, and Morphology: Dynamic Interactions in Primates (eds M. E. Morbeck, H. Preuschoft and N. Gomberg ), pp. 143-181. Gustav Fischer, New York.
124. Kambic, R. E. (2008). Multivariate analysis of avian and non-avian theropod pedal phalanges. MS Thesis: Montana State University.
125. Kamper, D. G., Hornby, T. G. & Rymer, W. Z. (2002). Extrinsic flexor muscles generate concurrent flexion of all three finger joints. Journal of Biomechanics 35, 1581-1589.
126. Kardong, K. V. (2011). Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution. Sixth Edition. McGraw-Hill, San Francisco.
127. Kenny, J. S. (1966). Nest building in Phyllomedusa trinitatis Mertens. Caribbean Journal of Science 6, 15-22.
128. Kingston, A. K., Boyer, D. M., Patel, B. A., Larson, S. G. & Stern, J. T. Jr. (2010). Hallucal grasping in Nycticebus coucang: further implications for the functional significance of a large peroneal process. Journal of Human Evolution 58, 33-42.
129. Kivell, T. L., Kibii, J. M., Churchill, S. E., Schmid, P. & Berger, L. R. (2011). Australopithecus sediba hand demonstrates mosaic evolution of locomotor and manipulative abilities. Science 333, 1411-1417.
130. Kivell, T. L., Schmitt, D. & Wunderlich, R. E. (2010). Hand and foot pressures in the aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis) reveal novel biomechanical trade-offs required for walking on gracile digits. Journal of Experimental Biology 213, 1549-1557.
131. Kohlsdorf, T., Garland, T. Jr. & Navas, C. A. (2001). Limb morphology in relation to substrate usage in Tropidurus lizards. Journal of Morphology 248, 151-164.
132. Ksepka, D. T. & Clarke, J. A. (2012). A new stem parrot from the Green River Formation and the complex evolution of the grasping foot in Pan-Psittaciformes. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 32, 395-406.
133. Landsmeer, J. M. (1962). Power grip and precision handling. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 21, 164-170.
134. Landy, M. (1997). An analysis of skilled forelimb movements during feeding in possums and gliders. Unpublished Honours Thesis: Monash University.
135. Lassek, A. M. (1954). The Pyramidal Tract. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield.
136. Le GROS CLARK, W. E. (1936). The problem of the claw in the Primates. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1936, 1-24.
137. Le GROS CLARK, W. E. (1959). The Antecedents of Man. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.
138. Lemelin, P. (1996). Relationships between hand morphology and feeding strategies in small-bodied prosimians. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 22(suppl), 148.
139. Lemelin, P. (1999). Morphological correlates of substrate use in didelphid marsupials: implications for primate origins. Journal of Zoology 247, 165-175.
140. Lemelin, P. (2000). Micro-anatomy of the volar skin and interordinal relationships of primates. Journal of Human Evolution 38, 257-267.
141. Lemelin, P., Schmitt, D. & Cartmill, M. (2003). Footfall patterns and interlimb co-ordination in opossums (Family Didelphidae): evidence for the evolution of diagonal-sequence walking gaits in primates. Journal of Zoology (London) 260, 423-429.
142. Lennerstedt, I. (1975). A functional study of papillae and pads in the foot of passerines, parrots and owls. Zoologica Scripta 4, 111-123.
143. Lewis, O. J. (1989). Functional Morphology of the Evolving Hand and Foot. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
144. Liem, K. F., Bemis, W. E., Walker, W. F. J. & Grande, L. (2001). Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective. Third Edition. Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning, Belmont.
145. Lillywhite, H. B., Mittal, A. K., Garg, T. K. & Agrawal, N. (1997). Integumentary structure and its relationship to wiping behaviour in the common Indian tree frog, Polypedates maculatus. Journal of Zoology 243, 675-687.
146. Losos, J. B. (1990). The evolution of form and function: morphology and locomotion performance in West Indian Anolis lizards. Evolution 44, 1189-1203.
147. Lutz, G. J. & Rome, L. C. (1994). Built for jumping - the design of the frog muscular system. Science 263, 370-372.
148. Macdonald, D. W. (1984). The Encyclopedia of Mammals. G. Allen & Unwin/Facts on File, New York.
149. Mackenzie, C. L. & Iberall, T. (1994). The Grasping Hand: Advances in Psychology (Volume 104). North-Holland, Amsterdam.
150. Mac Neilage, P. F., Studdert-Kennedy, M. G. & Lindblom, B. (1987). Primate handedness reconsidered. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10, 247-303.
151. Maddison, W. P. & Maddison, D. R. (2011). Mesquite: a modular system for evolutionary analysis. Version 2.75. http://mesquiteproject.org. Accessed 30.9.2011.
152. Malek, R. (1981). The grip and its modalities. In The Hand (Volume 1 ed. R. Tubiana, W. B. Saunders and Company), pp. 469-476, Philadelphia.
153. Manning, P. L., Payne, D., Pennicott, J., Barrett, P. M. & Ennos, R. A. (2006). Dinosaur killer claws or climbing crampons? Biology Letters 2, 110-112.
154. Manzano, A. S., Abdala, V. & Herrel, A. (2008). Morphology and function of the forelimb in arboreal frogs: specializations for grasping ability? Journal of Anatomy 213, 296-307.
155. Manzano, A. S., Fabrezi, M. & Vences, M. (2007). Intercalary elements, treefrogs, and the early differentiation of a complex system in the neobatrachia. The Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology 290, 1551-1567.
156. Manzano, A. S. & Lavilla, E. O. (1995). Notas sobre la miología apendicular de Phyllomedusa hypocondrialis (Anura, Hylidae). Alytes 12, 169-174.
157. Marti, C. D. (1974). Feeding ecology of four sympatric raptors. Condor 76, 45-61.
158. Martin, R. D. (1972). A preliminary field-study of the lesser mouse lemur. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 9, 43-89.
159. Martin, R. D. (1990). Primate Origins and Evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
160. Marzke, M. W. (1997). Precision grips, hand morphology, and tools. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 102, 91-110.
161. Marzke, M. W. & Marzke, R. F. (2000). Evolution of the human hand: approaches to acquiring, analysing and interpreting the anatomical evidence. Journal of Anatomy 197, 121-140.
162. Marzke, M. W., Marzke, R. F., Linscheid, R. L., Smutz, P., Steinberg, B., Reece, S. & An, K. N. (1999). Chimpanzee thumb muscle cross sections, moment arms and potential torques, and comparisons with humans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 110, 163-178.
163. Marzke, M. W. & Wullstein, K. L. (1996). Chimpanzee and human grips: a new classification with a focus on evolutionary morphology. International Journal of Primatology 17, 117-139.
164. Marzke, M. W., Wullstein, K. L. & Viegas, S. F. (1992). Evolution of the power ('squeeze') grip and its morphological correlates in hominids. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 89, 283-298.
165. Mcallister, W. & Channing, A. (1983). Comparison of toe pads of some southern African climbing frogs. South African Journal of Zoology/Suid Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Dierkunde 18, 110-114.
166. Mcclearn, D. (1992). Locomotion, posture, and feeding-behavior of kinkajous, coatis, and raccoons. Journal of Mammalogy 73, 245-261.
167. Mendyk, R. W. & Horn, H.-G. (2011). Skilled forelimb movements and extractive foraging in the arboreal monitor lizard Varanus beccarii (Doria, 1874). Herpetological Review 42, 343-349.
168. Michilsens, F., Vereecke, E. E., D'AOUT, K. & Aerts, P. (2009). Functional anatomy of the gibbon forelimb: adaptations to a brachiating lifestyle. Journal of Anatomy 215, 335-354.
169. Middleton, K. M. (2001). The morphological basis of hallucal orientation in extant birds. Journal of Morphology 250, 51-60.
170. Middleton, K. M. (2003). Morphology, evolution, and function of the Avian Hallux. PhD Dissertation: Brown University.
171. Milliken, G. W., Ward, J. P. & Erickson, C. J. (1991). Independent digit control in foraging by the aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis). Folia Primatologica 56, 219-224.
172. Moreno, E. (1990). The musculi flexor perforatus digiti II and flexor digitorum longus in Paridae. Condor 92, 634-638.
173. Moreno, E. (1991). Musculature of the pelvic appendages of the treecreepers (Passeriformes, Certhiidae) - myological adaptations for tail-supported climbing. Canadian Journal of Zoology-Revue Canadienne de Zoologie 69, 2456-2460.
174. Moro, S. & Abdala, V. (2004). Analisis descriptivo de la miología flexora y extensora del miembro anterior de Polychrus acutirostris (Squamata, Polychrotidae). Papeis Avulsos de Zoologia (Sao Paulo) 44, 81-89.
175. Myatt, J. P., Crompton, R. H., Payne-Davis, R. C., Vereecke, E. E., Isler, K., Savage, R., D'Aout, K., Gunther, M. M. & Thorpe, S. K. S. (2012). Functional adaptations in the forelimb muscles of non-human great apes. Journal of Anatomy 220, 13-28.
176. Nakatsukasa, M., Kunimatsu, Y., Nakano, Y. & Ishida, H. (2002). Morphology of the hallucial phalanges in extant anthropoids and fossil hominoids. Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie 83, 361-372.
177. Napier, J. R. (1956). The prehensile movements of the human hand. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 38B, 902-913.
178. Napier, J. R. (1993). In Hands (Rev. by R. H. Tuttle ), pp. 180. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
179. Napier, J. R. & Napier, P. H. (1985). The Natural History of the Primates. The MIT Press, Cambridge.
180. Nauwelaerts, S. & Aerts, P. (2006). Take-off and landing forces in jumping frogs. Journal of Experimental Biology 209, 66-77.
181. Nekaris, K. A. I. (2005). Foraging behaviour of the slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianus): implications for theories of primate origins. Journal of Human Evolution 49, 289-300.
182. Nimbarte, A. D., Kaz, R. & Li, Z. M. (2008). Finger joint motion generated by individual extrinsic muscles: a cadaveric study. Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research 3, 27.
183. Noble, G. K. (1931). The Biology of the Amphibians. McGraw-Hill, New York.
184. Norberg, R. A. (1986). Treecreeper climbing - mechanics, energetics, and structural adaptations. Ornis Scandinavica 17, 191-209.
185. Norberg, U. (1994). Wing design, flight performance, and habitat use in bats. In Ecological Morphology: Integrated Organismal Biology (eds P. Wainwright and S. Reilly ), pp. 205-239. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
186. Oates, J. F. (1984). The niche of the potto, Perodicticus potto. International Journal of Primatology 5, 51-61.
187. Orkin, J. D. & Pontzer, H. (2011). The narrow niche hypothesis: gray squirrels shed new light on primate origins. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 144, 617-624.
188. Pagel, M. (1994). Detecting correlated evolution on phylogenies: a general method for the comparative analysis of discrete characters. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 255, 37-45.
189. Paukstis, G. L. & Brown, L. E. (1987). Evolution of the intercalary cartilage in chorus frogs, genus Pseudacris (Salientia: Hylidae). Brimleyana 13, 55-61.
190. Paukstis, G. L. & Brown, L. E. (1991). Evolutionary trends in the morphology of the intercalary phalanx of anuran amphibians. Canadian Journal of Zoology 69, 1297-1301.
191. Payne, R. S. (1962). The acoustical location of prey by the Barn Owl (Tyto alba). PhD Dissertation: Cornell University.
192. Petter, J. J. (1962). Ecological and behavioural studies of Madagascar lemurs in the field. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 102, 267-281.
193. Piep, M., Radespiel, U., Zimmermann, E., Schmidt, S. & Siemers, B. M. (2008). The sensory basis of prey detection in captive-born grey mouse lemurs, Microcebus murinus. Animal Behaviour 75, 871-878.
194. Pike, A. V. L. & Maitland, D. P. (2004). Scaling of bird claws. Journal of Zoology 262, 73-81.
195. Pocock, R. T. (1917). External characters and classification of the Procyonidae. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 91, 389-422.
196. Ponssa, M. L., Goldberg, J. & Abdala, V. (2010). Sesamoids in anurans: new data, old issues. The Anatomical Record 293, 1646-1668.
197. Pough, H. F., Janis, C. M. & Heiser, J. B. (2009). Vertebrate Life. Eighth Edition Pearson/Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco.
198. Pouydebat, E., Berge, C., Gorce, P. & Coppens, Y. (2006). La préhension chez les Primates: précision, outils et perspectives évolutives. Comptes Rendus Palevol 5, 597-602.
199. Pouydebat, E., Gorce, P., Coppens, Y. & Bels, V. (2009). Biomechanical study of grasping according to the volume of the object: human versus non-human primates. Journal of Biomechanics 42, 266-272.
200. Pouydebat, E., Laurin, M., Gorce, P. & Bels, V. (2008). Evolution of grasping among anthropoids. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 21, 1732-1743.
201. Pouydebat, E., Reghem, E., Borel, A. & Gorce, P. (2011). Diversity of grip in adults and young humans and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Behavioural Brain Research 218, 21-28.
202. Pouydebat, E., Reghem, E., Gorce, P. & Bels, V. (2010). Influence of the task on hand preference: individual differences among gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Folia Primatologica 81, 273-281.
203. Proctor, N. S. & Lynch, P. J. (1993). Manual of Ornithology: Avian Structure and Function. Yale University Press, New Haven.
204. Quinn, T. H. & Baumel, J. J. (1990). The digital tendon locking mechanism of the avian foot. Zoomorphology 109, 281-293.
205. Quinn, T. H. & Baumel, J. J. (1993). Chiropteran tendon locking mechanism. Journal of Morphology 216, 197-208.
206. Raikow, R. J. (1982). Monophyly of the Passeriformes: test of a phylogenetic hypothesis. Auk 99, 431-445.
207. Raikow, R. J. (1985). The locomotor system. In Form and Function in Birds (Volume 3 eds A. S. King and J. Mclelland ), pp. 57-147. Academic Press, London.
208. Raikow, R. J. (1994). Climbing adaptations in the hindlimb musculature of the woodcreepers (Dendrocolaptinae). Condor 96, 1103-1106.
209. Raikow, R. J., Polumbo, P. J. & Borecky, S. R. (1980). Appendicular myology and relationships of the shrikes (Aves: Passeriformes: Laniidae). Annals of Carnegie Museum 49, 131-152.
210. Ramos, A. M. & Walker, I. D. (1998). Raptors-inroads to multifingered grasping. In IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, pp. 467-475. Victoria.
211. Rasmussen, D. T. (1990). Primate origins: lessons from a Neotropical marsupial. American Journal of Primatology 22, 263-277.
212. Rasmussen, D. T. & Sussman, R. W. (2007). Parallelisms among possums and primates. In Primate Origins: Adaptation and Evolution (eds M. Ravosa and M. Dagosta ), pp. 39-380. Springer, New York.
213. Ravosa, M. J. & Dagosto, M. (2007). Primate origins: adaptations and evolution. In Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects (ed. R. H. Tuttle ), pp. 1-829. Springer, New York.
214. Reghem, E., Byron, C. & Poudebat, E. (2012). Hand posture of Microcebus murinus during arboreal locomotion. Journal of Zoology 288, 76-81.
215. Reghem, E., Tia, B., Bels, V. & Pouydebat, E. (2011). Food prehension and manipulation in Microcebus murinus (Prosimii, Cheirogaleidae). Folia Primatologica 82, 177-188.
216. Reilly, S. M. & Delancey, M. J. (1997). Sprawling locomotion in the lizard Sceloporus clarkii: the effects of speed on gait, hindlimb kinematics, and axial bending during walking. Journal of Zoology 243, 417-433.
217. Renous-Lécuru, S. (1973). Morphologie comparée du carpe chez les Lepidosauriens actuels (Rynchocéphales, Lacertiliens, Amphisbéniens). Gegenbaurs Morphologisches Jahrbuch Leipzig 119, 727-766.
218. Rensch, V. B. & Ducker, G. (1969). Manipulierfahigkeit eines wickelbarenbei langeren handlungsketten. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie-Journal of Comparative Ethology 26, 104-112.
219. Reynolds, R. T. & Meslow, E. C. (1984). Partitioning of food and niche characteristics of coexisting Accipiter during breeding. Auk 101, 761-779.
220. Rolian, C., Lieberman, D. E. & Zermeno, J. P. (2011). Hand biomechanics during simulated stone tool use. Journal of Human Evolution 61, 26-41.
221. Rosenberg, H. I. & Rose, R. (1999). Volar adhesive pads of the feathertail glider, Acrobates pygmaeus (Marsupialia, Acrobatidae). Canadian Journal of Zoology 77, 233-248.
222. Ross, R. C. (1924). What birds hold food with the feet? Condor 26, 112.
223. Russell, A. P. (1993) The aponeuroses of the lacertilian ankle. Journal of Morphology 218, 65-84..
224. Russell, A. P. & Bauer, A. M. (2008). The appendicular locomotor apparatus of Sphenodon and normal-limbed squamates. In Biology of Reptilia, Volume 21: The Skull and Appendicular Locomotor Apparatus of Lepidosauria, Contributions to Herpetology 24 (eds C. Gans, A. S. Gaunt and K. Adler ), pp. 1-465. Society for the Study of Reptiles & Amphibians, Ithaca, New York.
225. Sacrey, L. A. R., Alaverdashvili, M. & Whishaw, I. Q. (2009). Similar hand shaping in reaching-for-food (skilled reaching) in rats and humans provides evidence of homology in release, collection, and manipulation movements. Behavioural Brain Research 204, 153-161.
226. Samaras, A. & Youlatos, D. (2010). Use of forest canopy by European red squirrels Sciurus vulgaris in Northern Greece: claws and the small branch niche. Acta Theriologica 55, 351-360.
227. Sargis, E. J. (2001). The grasping behavior, locomotion, and substrate use of tree shrews Tupaia minor and T. tana (Mammalia, Scandentia). Journal of Zoology (London) 253, 485-490.
228. Sargis, E. J., Boyer, D. M., Bloch, J. I. & Silcox, M. T. (2007). Evolution of pedal grasping in Primates. Journal of Human Evolution 53, 103-107.
229. Schaffer, J. (1903). Über die Sperrvorrichtung an den Zehen der Vögel. Ein Beitrag zur Mechanik des Vögelfusses und zur Kenntnis der Bindesubstanz. Zeitschrift Fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie 73, 377-428.
230. Schieber, M. H. (1991). Individuated finger movements of rhesus-monkeys - a means of quantifying the independence of the digits. Journal of Neurophysiology 65, 1381-1391.
231. Schieber, M. H. (1995). Muscular production of individuated finger movements: the roles of extrinsic finger muscles. The Journal of Neuroscience 15, 284-297.
232. Schieber, M. H. & Santello, M. (2004). Hand function: peripheral and central constraints on performance. Journal of Applied Physiology 96, 2293-2300.
233. Schmitt, D. & Lemelin, P. (2002). Origins of primate locomotion: gait mechanics of the woolly opossum. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118, 231-238.
234. Schoener, T. W. (1984). Size differences among sympatric, bird-eating hawks: a worldwide survey. In Ecological Communities: Conceptual Issues and the Evidence (eds J. Donald, R. Strong, D. Simberloff, L. G. Abele and A. B. Thistle ), pp. 254-281. Princeton University Press, New Jersey.
235. Schultz, A. H. (1972). Les primates. In La Grande Encyclopédie de la Nature (Volume, 17 ed. Bordas ), p. 383. Éditions Rencontre, Lausanne.
236. Schwartzkopff, J. (1949). Über Sitz und Leistung von Gehör und Vibrationssinn bei Vögeln. Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Physiologie 31, 527-608.
237. Schwartzkopff, J. (1973). Mechanoreception. In Avian Biology (Volume 3, eds D. S. Farner, J. R. King and K. C. Parkes ), pp. 417-477. Academic Press, New York.
238. Schwensen, K. (1994). The importance of the somatosensory system in skilled limb-use by the northern quoll, Dasyurus hallucatus. Unpublished Honours Thesis: Monash University.
239. Scooter, C. A. (1944). Methods of grasping and carrying prey. Condor 46, 88.
240. Sereno, P. C. & Chenggang, R. (1992). Early evolution of avian flight and perching: new evidence from the lower Cretaceous of China. Science 255, 845-848.
241. Shahar, R. & Milgram, J. (2005). Morphometric and anatomic study of the forelimb of the dog. Journal of Morphology 263, 107-117.
242. Shim, J. K., Karol, S., Kim, Y. S., Seo, N. J., Kim, Y. H., Kim, Y. & Yoon, B. C. (2012). Tactile feedback plays a critical role in maximum finger force production. Journal of Biomechanics 45, 415-420.
243. Shubin, N. H. & Jenkins, F. A. (1995). An early jurassic jumping frog. Nature 377, 49-52.
244. Siemers, B. M., Goerlitz, H. R., Robsomanitrandrasana, E., Piep, M., Ramanamanjato, J.-B., Rakotondravony, D., Ramilijaona, O. & Ganzhorn, J. U. (2007). Sensory basis of food detection in wild Microcebus murinus. International Journal of Primatology 28, 291-304.
245. Simmons, N. & Quinn, T. (1994). Evolution of the digital tendon locking mechanism in bats and dermopterans: a phylogenetic perspective. Journal of Mammalian Evolution 2, 231-251.
246. Smith, G. A. (1971). The use of the foot in feeding, with special reference to parrots. Avicultural Magazine 77, 93-100.
247. Smith, N. C., Wilson, A. M., Jespers, K. J. & Payne, R. C. (2006). Muscle architecture and functional anatomy of the pelvic limb of the ostrich (Struthio camelus). Journal of Anatomy 209, 765-779.
248. Spinozzi, G., Truppa, V. & Lagana, T. (2004). Grasping behavior in tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella): grip types and manual laterality for picking up a small food item. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 125, 30-41.
249. Susman, R. L. (1998). Hand function and tool behavior in early hominids. Journal of Human Evolution 35, 23-46.
250. Sussman, R. W. (1991). Primate origins and the evolution of angiosperms. American Journal of Primatology 23, 209-223.
251. Sussman, R. W. & Raven, P. H. (1978). Pollination by lemurs and marsupials: an archaic coevolutionary system. Science 200, 731-736.
252. Sustaita, D. (2008). Musculoskeletal underpinnings to differences in killing behavior between North American accipiters (Falconiformes: Accipitridae) and falcons (Falconidae). Journal of Morphology 269, 283-301.
253. Sustaita, D. & Hertel, F. (2010). In vivo bite and grip forces, morphology and prey-killing behavior of North American accipiters (Accipitridae) and falcons (Falconidae). Journal of Experimental Biology 213, 2617-2628.
254. Sweet, S. S. & Pianka, E. R. (2007). Monitors, mammals and Wallace's Line. Third multidisciplinary world conference on monitor lizards. Mertensiella 16, 79-99.
255. Sylvester, A. D. (2006). Locomotor decoupling and the origin of hominin bipedalism. Journal of Theoretical Biology 242, 581-590.
256. Szalay, F. S. (1994). Evolutionary History of the Marsupials and an Analysis of Osteological Characters. Cambridge University Press, New York.
257. Szalay, F. S. & Dagosto, M. (1988). Evolution of hallucial grasping in the primates. Journal of Human Evolution 17, 1-33.
258. Taylor, B. K. (1985). Functional anatomy of the forelimb in vermilinguas (anteaters). In The Evolution and Ecology of Armadillos, Sloths, and Vermilinguas (ed. G. G. Montgomery ), pp. 163-172. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.
259. Taylor, G. M., Nol, E. & Boire, D. (1995). Brain regions and encephalization in anurans: adaptation or stability? Brain, Behavior and Evolution 45, 96-109.
260. Thewissen, J. G. M. & Etnier, S. A. (1995). Adhesive devices on the thumb of vespertilionoid bats (Chiroptera). Journal of Mammalogy 76, 925-936.
261. Tocheri, M. W., Orr, C. M., Jacofsky, M. C. & Marzke, M. W. (2008). The evolutionary history of the hominin hand since the last common ancestor of Pan and Homo. Journal of Anatomy 212, 544-562.
262. Tozer, D. C. & Allen, M. L. (2004). Adult Gray Jay captures an adult black-capped chickadee. Wilson Bulletin 116, 357-359.
263. Trinkaus, E. & Villemeur, I. (1991). Mechanical advantages of the Neanderthal thumb in flexion: a test of an hypothesis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 84, 249-260.
264. Tulli, M. J., Cruz, F. B., Herrel, A., Vanhooydonck, B. & Abdala, V. (2009). The interplay between claw morphology and microhabitat use in Neotropical iguanian lizards. Zoology 112, 379-392.
265. Tulli, M. J., Abdala, V. & Cruz, F. B. (2011). Relationships among morphology, clinging performance and habitat use in Liolaemini lizards. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 24, 843-855.
266. Tulli, M. J., Herrel, A., Vanhooydonck, B. & Abdala, V. (2012). Is phylogeny driving tendon length in lizards? Acta Zoologica (Stockholm) 93, 319-329.
267. Van Valkenburgh, B. (1987). Skeletal indicators of locomotor behaviour in living and extinct carnivores. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 7, 162-182.
268. Vaughan, T., Ryan, J. & Czaplewski, N. (2011). Mammalogy. Fifth Edition. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Greater Sudbury.
269. Vereecke, E. E., D'aout, K., Payne, R. & Aerts, P. (2005). Functional analysis of the foot and ankle myology of gibbons and bonobos. Journal of Anatomy 206, 453-476.
270. Verstappen, M., Aerts, P. & Vree, F. D. (1998). Functional morphology of the hindlimb musculature of the black-billed magpie, Pica pica (Aves, Corvidae). Zoomorphology 118, 207-223.
271. Wainwright, P. C. (1996). Ecological explanation through functional morphology: the feeding biology of sunfishes. Ecology 77, 1336-1343.
272. Wainwright, P. C., Alfaro, M. E., Bolnick, D. I. & Hulsey, C. D. (2005). Many-to-one mapping of form to function: a general principle in organismal design. Integrative and Comparative Biology 42, 256-262.
273. Ward, A. B., Weigl, P. D. & Conroy, R. M. (2002). Functional morphology of raptor hindlimbs: implications for resource partitioning. Auk 119, 1052-1063.
274. Watson, M. (1869). On the mechanism of perching in birds. Journal of Anatomy 3, 379-384.
275. Whipple, I. L. (1904). The ventral surface of the mammalian cheiridium, with special reference to conditions found in man. Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie 7, 261-368.
276. Whishaw, I. Q. (1996). An endpoint, descriptive, and kinematic comparison of skilled reaching in mice (Mus musculus) with rats (Rattus novergicus). Behavioural Brain Research 78, 101-111.
277. Whishaw, I. Q. (2003). Did a change in sensory control of skilled movements stimulate the evolution of the primate frontal cortex? Behavioural Brain Research 146, 31-41.
278. Whishaw, I. Q., Pellis, S. M. & Gorny, B. P. (1992). Skilled reaching in rats and humans: evidence for parallel development or homology. Behavioural Brain Research 47, 59-70.
279. Whishaw, I. Q., Sarna, J. R. & Pellis, S. M. (1998). Rodent-typical and species-specific limb use in eating: evidence for specialized paw use from a comparative analysis of ten species. Behavioural Brain Research 96, 79-91.
280. Williams, E. M., Gordon, A. D. & Richmond, B. G. (2012). Hand pressure distribution during Oldowan stone tool production. Journal of Human Evolution 62, 520-532.
281. Wimsatt, W. A. & Villa, B. (1970). Locomotor adaptations of the discwinged bat Thyropteratricolor. I. Functional organization of the adhesive discs. The American Journal of Anatomy 129, 89-120.
282. Winkelmann, R. K. & Myers, T. T. I. (1961). The histochemistry and morphology of the cutaneous sensory end-organs of the chicken. The Journal of Comparative Neurology 117, 27-35.
283. Yanega, G. M. (2007). A comparative study of the functional morphology and ecology of insectivory in hummingbirds. PhD Thesis: University of Connecticut.
284. Youlatos, D. (2008). Hallucal grasping behavior in Caluromys (Didelphimorphia: Didelphidae): implications for primate pedal grasping. Journal of Human Evolution 55, 1096-1101.
285. Zaaf, A. & Van damme, R. (2001). Limb proportions in climbing and ground-dwelling geckos (Lepidosauria, Gekkonidae): a phylogenetically informed analysis. Zoomorphology 121, 45-53.
286. Zani, P. A. (2000). The comparative evolution of lizard claw and toe morphology and clinging performance. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 13, 316-325.
287. Zatsiorsky, V. M. & Latash, M. L. (2004). Prehension synergies. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 32, 75-80.