Framing disability

University of Illinois Law Review

Volumn 2012, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 1383-1442

  Emens, Elizabeth F ^a  

^a The Earth Institute at Columbia University   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84871819837     PISSN: 02769948     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (282)

1. See, for example, David Wasserman, Is Disability Discrimination Different? Reasonable Accommodation, Injury Prevention, in PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF ANTI-DISCRIMINATION LAW (Deborah Hellman & Sophia Moreau eds., forthcoming 2013);
2. Adrienne Asch & David Wasserman, Making Embryos Healthy or Making Healthy Embryos: How Much of a Difference Between Prenatal Treatment and Selection?, in THE "HEALTHY" EMBRYO: SOCIAL, BIOMEDICAL, LEGAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES 201 (Jeff Nisker et al. eds., 2010).
3. Cf. Russell K. Robinson, Perceptual Segregation, 108 COLUM. L. REV. 1093 (2008)
4. See, e.g., Cheryl L. Anderson, "Deserving Disabilities": Why the Definition of Disability Under the Americans with Disabilities Act Should Be Revised to Eliminate the Substantial Limitation Requirement, 65 MO. L. REV. 83, 91-109 (2000);
5. Samuel R. Bagenstos, Subordination, Stigma, and "Disability", 86 Va. L. Rev. 397, 466-73 (2000);
6. Chai R. Feldblum, Definition of Disability Under Federal Anti-Discrimination Law: What Happened? Why? And What Can We Do About It?, 21 BERKELEY J. EMP. & LAB. L. 91, 91-94 (2000). On the particularly poor outcomes for disability plaintiffs in federal courts
7. see Ruth Colker, The Americans with Disabilities Act: A Windfall for Defendants, 34 HARV. C. R.-GL. L. REV. 99, 99-100 (1999);
8. Ruth Colker, Winning and Losing Under the Americans with Disabilities Act, 62 OHIO ST. L. J. 239, 248-49 (2001).
9. See ADA Amendments Act of 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-325, 122 Stat. 3553.
10. Toyota Motor Mfg., Ky., Inc. v. Williams, 534 U. S. 184, 197 (2002).
11. See, e.g., Dale Larson, Comment, Unconsciously Regarded As Disabled: Implicit Bias and the Regarded-As Prong of the Americans with Disabilities Act, 56 UCLA L. REV. 451, 485-86 (2008);
12. Elizabeth F. Emens, Disabling Attitudes: U. S. Disability Law and the ADA Amendments Act, 60 Amer. J. Compar. L. 205, 207-09 (2012). The fate of the ADAAA is unclear at this point because courts have interpreted it not to apply retroactively.
13. See, e.g., Becerril v. Pima Cnty. Assessor's Office, 587 F.3d 1162, 1164 (9th Cir. 2009);
14. Lytes v. DC Water & Sewer Auth., 572 F.3d 936, 938 (DC. Cir. 2009);
15. Milholland v. Sumner Cnty. Bd. of Educ, 569 F.3d 562, 565 (6th Cir. 2009). But the early cases suggest that courts are responding to Congress's mandate for a broader definition of disability.
16. See, e.g., Hoffman v. Carefirst of Fort Wayne, Inc., 737 F. Supp. 2d 976 (2010);
17. Horgan v. Simmons, 704 F. Supp. 2d 814 (2010).
18. see generally SIMI LINTON, CLAIMING DISABILITY: KNOWLEDGE AND IDENTITY (1998);
19. ANITA SILVERS ET AL., DISABILITY, DIFFERENCE, DISCRIMINATION: PERSPECTIVES ON JUSTICE IN BIOETHICS AND PUBLIC POLICY (1998);
20. Samuel R. Bagenstos, "Rational Discrimination", Accommodation, and the Politics of (Disability) Civil Rights, 89 VA. L. REV. 825 (2003);
21. Michael Ashley Stein, Same Struggle, Different Difference: ADA Accommodations As Antidiscrimination, 153 U. PA. L. REV. 579 (2004).
22. See, e.g., Michael Selmi, Interpreting the Americans with Disabilities Act: Why the Supreme Court Rewrote the Statute, and Why Congress Did Not Care, 76 GEO. WASH. L. REV. 522, 571-75 (2008).
23. See, e.g., Mark C. Weber, Home and Community-Based Services, Olmstead, and Positive Rights: A Preliminary Discussion, 39 WAKE FOREST L. REV. 269, 278-80 (2004) (describing integration as the central "promise" of the ADA);
24. cf. Jacobus Ten Broek, The Right To Live in the World: The Disabled in the Law of Torts, 54 CALIF. L. REV. 841, 843-47 (1966) (claiming that integration should be the goal of policy making in this area).
25. For the view that integration is a secondary goal after antisubordination, see Ruth Colker, Anti-Subordination Above All: A Disability Perspective, 82 NOTRE DAME L. REV. 1415 (2007).
26. See, e.g., SAMUEL R. BAGENSTOS, LAW AND THE CONTRADICTIONS OF THE DISABILITY RIGHTS MOVEMENT (2009);
27. BACKLASH AGAINST THE ADA: REINTERPRETING DISABILITY RIGHTS (Linda Hamilton Krieger ed., 2003).
28. See Elizabeth F. Emens, Changing Name Changing: Framing Rules and the Future of Marital Names, 74 U. CHI. L. REV. 761, 840 (2007).
29. Jane West, The Social and Policy Context of the Act, 69 MILBANK Q. (SUPPLEMENTS 1/2) 3, 10 (1991).
30. Harriet McBryde Johnson, Unspeakable Conversations, N. Y. TIMES MAG., Feb. 16, 2003, at 50 (italics added).
31. See, e.g., JON ELSTER, SOUR GRAPES: STUDIES IN THE SUBVERSION OF RATIONALITY pt. 3 (1985).
32. See, e.g., Martha Nussbaum, Who Is the Happy Warrior? Philosophy Poses Questions to Psychology, 37 J. LEGAL STUD. S81 (2008);
33. Matthew Adler & Eric A. Posner, Happiness Research and Cost-Benefit Analysis, 37 J. LEGAL STUD. S253 (2008);
34. Sean Hannon Williams, Self-Altering Injury: The Hidden Harms of Hedonic Adaptation, 96 CORNELL L. REV. 535 (2011).
35. Cf, e.g., Ron Amundson, Quality of Life, Disability, and Hedonic Psychology, 40 J. THEORY SOC. BEHAV. 374, 377 (2010)
36. DANIEL GILBERT, STUMBLING ON HAPPINESS 29 (2006)
37. (citing NANCY L. SEGAL, ENTWINED LIVES: TWINS AND WHAT THEY TELL US ABOUT HUMAN BEHAVIOR (1999)).
38. see, for example, David Wasserman, Philosophical Issues in the Definition and Social Response to Disability, in HANDBOOK OF DISABILITY STUDIES 219, 229-34 (Gary L. Albrecht et al. eds., 2001);
39. See Peter A. Ubel et al., Misimagining the Unimaginable: The Disability Paradox and Health Care Decision Making, 24 HEALTH PSYCHOL. (SUPPLEMENT) S57, S57 (2005).
40. Philip Brickman et al., Lottery Winners and Accident Victims: Is Happiness Relative?, 36 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 917 (1978).
41. See, e.g., Norman F. Boyd et al., Whose Utilities for Decision Analysis?, 10 MED. DECISION MAKING 58 (1990)
42. Jason Riis et al., Ignorance of Hedonic Adaptation to Hemodialysis: A Study Using Ecological Momentary Assessment, 134 J. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOL.: GEN. 3 (2005)
43. David L. Sackett & George W. Torrance, The Utility of Different Health States As Perceived by the General Public, 31 J. CHRONIC DISEASES 697 (1978)
44. see also Samuel R. Bagenstos & Margo Schlanger. Hedonic Damages, Hedonic Adaptation, and Disability, 60 VAND. L. REV. 745 (2007) For critiques of Bagenstos and Schlanger's application of the hedonics literature to tort damages
45. See Disabilities in Tort Litigation, 86 WASH. L. REV. 709 (2011)
46. But cf. Andrew J. Oswald & Nattavudh Powdthavee, Does Happiness Adapt? A Longitudinal Study of Disability with Implications for Economists and Judges, 92 J. PUB. ECON. 1061, 1072 (2008)
47. see Cass R. Sunstein, Illusory Losses, 37 (2) J. LEGAL STUD. S157, S167 (2008)
48. see Shane Frederick & George Loewenstein, Hedonic Adaptation, in WELL-BEING: THE FOUNDATIONS OF HEDONIC PSYCHOLOGY 302, 312 (Daniel Kahneman et al. eds., 1999).
49. Cf, e.g., Peter A. Ubel et al., Disability and Sunshine: Can Hedonic Predictions Be Improved by Drawing Attention to Focusing Illusions or Emotional Adaptation?, 11 J. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOL.: APPLIED 111 (2005)
50. See Peter A. Ubel et al., Whose Quality of Life? A Commentary Exploring Discrepancies Between Health State Evaluations of Patients and the General Public, 12 QUALITY LIFE RES. 599, 601, 603-04 (2003).
51. See, e.g., Adrienne Asch & David Wasserman, Where Is the Sin in Synecdoche?: Prenatal Testing and the Parent-Child Relationship, in QUALITY OF LIFE AND HUMAN DIFFERENCE: GENETIC TESTING, HEALTH CARE, AND DISABILITY 172 (David Wasserman et al. eds., 2005);
52. Adrienne Asch, Why I Haven't Changed My Mind About Prenatal Diagnosis: Reflections and Refinements, in PRENATAL TESTING AND DISABILITY RIGHTS 234, 235-36, 247-55 (Erik Parens & Adrienne Asch eds., 2000).
53. See, e.g., Sally French, Simulation Exercises in Disability Awareness Training: A Critique, 7 DISABILITY, HANDICAP & SOC'Y 257 (1992).
54. See, e.g., Peter A. Ubel & George Loewenstein, Pain and Suffering Awards: They Shouldn't Be (Just) About Pain and Suffering, 37 J. LEGAL STUD. S195, S203 (2008)
55. See, e.g., Philip M. Ferguson et al., The Experience of Disability in Families: A Synthesis of Research and Parent Narratives, in PRENATAL TESTING AND DISABILITY RIGHTS, supra note 35, at 72, 74 (describing this research as "bewilderingly multidisciplinary and difficult to follow").
56. Compare, e.g., Roy I. Brown et al.. Family Quality of Life When There Is a Child with a Developmental Disability, 3 J. POL'Y & PRAC. INTELL. DISABILITIES 238 (2006)
57. and Nancy E. Reichman et al., Impact of Child Disability on the Family, 12 MATERNAL & CHILD HEALTH J. 679, 680 (2008) (reporting more negative consequences)
58. with Sylvia Rodger & Leigh Tooth, Adult Siblings' Perceptions of Family Life and Loss: A Pilot Case Study, 16 J. DEVELOPMENTAL & PHYSICAL DISABILITIES 53 (2004)
59. and Tim Stainton & Hilde Besser, The Positive Impact of Children with an Intellectual Disability on the Family, 23 J. INTELL. & DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITY 57 (1998)
60. See, e.g., Eric Emerson et al., Levels of Psychological Distress Experienced by Family Carers of Children and Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities in an Urban Conurbation, 17 J. APPLIED RES. INTELL. DISABILITIES 77 (2004).
61. See, e.g., Richard Hassall et al., Parenting Stress in Mothers of Children with an Intellectual Disability: The Effects of Parental Cognitions in Relation to Child Characteristics and Family Support, 49 J. INTELL. DISABILITY RES. 405 (2005).
62. See, e.g., Robert M. Hodapp et al., Less Stress, More Rewarding: Parenting Children with Down Syndrome, 1 PARENTING: SCI. & PRAC. 317 (2001).
63. Compare, e.g., Zolinda Stoneman, Examining the Down Syndrome Advantage: Mothers and Fathers of Young Children with Disabilities, 51 J. INTELL. DISABILITY RES. 1006 (2007)
64. with Anna J. Esbensen & Marsha Mailick Seltzer, Accounting for the "Down Syndrome Advantage", 116 AM. J. INTELL. & DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 3 (2011)
65. Richard C. Urbano & Robert M. Hodapp, Divorce in Families of Children with Down Syndrome: A Population-Based Study, 112 AM. J. MENTAL RETARDATION 261, 261 (2007).
66. Susan E. Kelly, Choosing Not to Choose: Reproductive Responses of Parents of Children with Genetic Conditions or Impairments, 31 SOC. HEALTH & ILLNESS 81 (2009).
67. See, e.g., Rachel Adams, The Ethics of Choice, Revisited 3-4 (Nov. 3, 2009), available at https://sites.google.com/site/narrativegenetics/Home/the- ethics-of-choice.
68. see also NAT'L COUNCIL ON DISABILITY, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Reauthorization: Where Do We Really Stand? 3, 22 (2002)
69. See, e.g., Olmstead v. L. C., 527 U. S. 581 (1999).
70. Hajo I. J. Wildschut et al.. Screening in Women's Health, with Emphasis on Fetal Down's Syndrome, Breast Cancer and Osteoporosis, 12 HUM. REPROD. UPDATE 499, 501 (2006).
71. Facts About Down Syndrome, NAT'L ASS'N FOR DOWN SYNDROME, http://www.nads.org/pages-new/facts.html (last visited Aug. 20, 2012). Researchers at the Mayo Clinic continue to cite the 1997 statistic given in the text, suggesting that more recent data may not be available.
72. David S. Majdalany et al.. Adults with Down Syndrome: Safety and Long-Term Outcome of Cardiac Operation, 5 CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE 38, 38 (2010).
73. see, e.g., SPORT FOR DEV. & PEACE INT'L WORKING GRP., HARNESSING THE POWER OF SPORT FOR DEVELOPMENT AND PEACE: RECOMMENDATIONS TO GOVERNMENTS 171-72(2008), http://www.un.org/wcm/webdav/site/sport/shared/sport/pdfs/ SDP%20IWG/Final%20SDP%20IWG%20Report.pdf;
74. Michael Ashley Stein & Janet E. Lord, Future Prospects for the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, in THE UN CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES: EUROPEAN AND SCANDINAVIAN PERSPECTIVES 17, 29 (Oddny Mjoll Arnardottir & Gerard Quinn eds., 2009).
75. See, e.g., Special Olympics and Paralympics: What's the Difference?, SPECIAL OLYMPICS (Mar. 16, 2010), http://media.specialolympics.org/soi/files/ press-kitAVhat's%20the%20difference%20SO%20and%20ParaIympics.pdf.
76. See, e.g., Teddy Katz, Paralympics Are Not Special Olympics, CBC DIGITAL ARCHIVES, http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/sports/olympics/playing-to-win- canada-at-the-paralympics/paralympics-are-not-special-olympics.html (last updated Aug. 13, 2012).
77. see Stephen Holden, These Gladiators on Wheels Are Not Playing for a Hug, N. Y. TIMES, July 8, 2005, at E8
78. See Frequently Asked Questions About Murderball, U. S. QUAD RUGBY ASS'N, http://quadrugby.com/murderball/faqs.html (last visited Aug. 20, 2012);
79. Ralph Raymond, 2009 U. S. Men's (and 1st Woman!) Quad Rugby Team Announced, ROLLINGPIX (Dec. 20, 2008, 9:53 AM), http://rollingpix.blogspot.com/ 2008/12/2009-us-mens-and-lstwomen-quad-rugby.html.
80. Rosemarie Garland-Thompson, Shape Structures Story: Fresh and Feisty Stories About Disability, 15 NARRATIVE 113, 115 (2007).
81. See Michael A. Rembis, Athlete First: A Note on Passing, Disability, and Sport, 1, 13-14, in BLURRING THE LINES: DISABILITY, RACE, GENDER AND PASSING IN MODERN AMERICA (Daniel Wilson & Jeff Brune eds., forthcoming 2013);
82. Beth A. Haller & Sue Ralph, Are Disability Images in Advertising Becoming Bold and Daring?: An Analysis of Prominent Themes in US and UK Campaigns, 26 DISABILITY STUD. Q. (Summer 2006).
83. (quoting MARK ZUPAN & TIM SWANSON, GIMP 7 (2006)).
84. (quoting Aimee Mullins, The Opportunity of Adversity, Lecture given at TEDMED, San Diego, CA (Oct. 2009), http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= dTwXeZ4GkzI&feature=channel (last viewed Sept. 7, 2012)).
85. MILLION DOLLAR BABY (Warner Bros. Pictures 2004).
86. See, e.g., Million Dollar Baby Built on Prejudice About People with Disabilities, DISABILITY RTS. EDUC. & DEF. FUND (Feb. 2005), http://www.dredf.org/archives/mdb.shtml.
87. See, e.g., John Caskey, Million Dollar Baby in Review, DISABILITY STUD. Q. (Summer 2005), http://www.dsq-sds.org/article/view/590/767.
88. See The 77th Academy Awards (2005) Nominees and Winners, THE ACAD. OF MOTION PICTURE ARTS & SCIS. http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/ legacy/ceremony/77thwinners.html (last visited Aug. 20, 2012).
89. Million Dollar Baby Built on Prejudice About People with Disabilities, supra note 71.
90. See, e.g., MARY JOHNSON, MAKE THEM GO AWAY: CLINT EASTWOOD, CHRISTOPHER REEVE & THE CASE AGAINST DISABILITY RIGHTS 1-2 (2003);
91. Mary Johnson, Killing Us Kindly, RAGGED EDGE ONLINE (Jan. 19, 2005), http://www.raggededgemagazine.com/mediacircus/killingkindly.html.
92. See The 15 Lowest-Grossing Oscar Winners: 8. Million Dollar Baby (2004), CNBC, http://www.cnbc.com/id/41762460/The-15-Lowest-Grossing-Oscar-Winners? slide=9 (last visited Aug. 20, 2012);
93. The 15 Lowest-Grossing Oscar Winners: 8. Million Dollar Baby (2004), supra.
94. See Murderball, BOX OFFICE MOJO, http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id= murderball.htm (last visited Aug. 20, 2012) (the gross total given in the text is domestic; foreign gross included another $219, 057).
95. See The 78th Academy Awards (2006) Nominees and Winners, THE ACAD. OF MOTION PICTURE ARTS & SCIS., http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/ legacy/ceremony/78thwinners.html (last visited Aug. 20, 2012).
96. See, e.g., ADA Amendments Act of 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-325, 122 Stat. 3553 (findings);
97. Robert Kleck, Emotional Arousal in Interactions with Stigmatized Persons, 19 PSYCHOL. REP. 1226 (1966);
98. Fact Sheet 1: Employment of Persons with Disabilities, UNITED NATIONS ENABLE (Nov. 2007), http://www.un.org/disabihties/documents/toolaction/ employmentfs.pdf.
99. Adrienne Asch, Critical Race Theory, Feminism, and Disability: Reflections on Social Justice and Personal Identity, 62 OHIO ST. L. J. 391, 395 (2001) (footnote omitted).
100. Elaine Makas, Positive Attitudes Toward Disabled People: Disabled and Nondisabled Persons' Perspectives, 44 J. SOC. ISSUES 49 (1988).
101. see also MICHAEL OLIVER, UNDERSTANDING DISABILITY: FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE ch. 3 (1996).
102. see, for example, TOM SHAKESPEARE, DISABILITY RIGHTS AND WRONGS (2006).
103. SIMI LINTON, MY BODY POLITIC A MEMOIR 120 (2006).
104. see Adam M. Samaha, What Good Is the Social Model of Disability?, 74 U. CHI. L. REV. 1251 (2007).
105. Cf. SUSAN WENDELL, THE REJECTED BODY: FEMINIST PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTIONS ON DISABILITY 39 (1996)
106. See, e.g., U. S. DEP'T OF HEALTH & HUMAN SERVICES, The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Improve the Health and Wellness of Persons with Disabilities: What it Means to You, 1(2005), http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/ library/calls/disabilities/calltoaction.pdf ("The chance of having a disability goes up with age... to almost 75% for people 80 or older."). Relatedly, the most common disabilities are not the most obvious ones like paraplegia or blindness, but less obvious conditions like arthritis, hypertension, and back problems, for which the bearers do not typically claim a disability identity.
107. See, e.g.. Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Prevalence and Most Common Causes of Disability Among Adults-United States, 2005, (May 1, 2009), http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5816a2.htm (reporting the three most common disabilities in the U. S. as arthritis or rheumatism, back or spine problems, and heart trouble);
108. see also Aimee Burke Valeras, "We Don't Have a Box": Understanding Hidden Disability Identity Utilizing Narrative Research Methodology, DISABILITY STUD. Q. (2010), http://www.dsqsds.org/article/view/ 1267/1297. (Relatedly, people with many of these common impairments often hold more of an outside than inside view of disability.)
109. Harlan Hahn, The Politics of Physical Differences: Disability and Discrimination, 44 J. SOC. ISSUES 39 (1988).
110. see, for example, Elizabeth F. Emens, Against Nature, in NOMOS LII: EVOLUTION AND MORALITY (James E. Fleming & Sanford Levinson eds., forthcoming Sept. 2012).
111. See Kenji Yoshino, The Epistemic Contract of Bisexual Erasure, 52 STAN. L. REV. 353, 402-04 (2000).
112. Cf, e.g., Ronald Dworkin, What Is Equality? Part 2: Equality of Resources, 10 PHIL. & PUB. AFF. 283, 296-98 (1981)
113. David Wasserman, Distributive Justice, in DISABILITY, DIFFERENCE, DISCRIMINATION: PERSPECTIVES ON JUSTICE IN BIOETHICS AND PUBLIC POLICY, supra note 8, at 147, 165-72 (critiquing Dworkin's disability insurance scheme). I mean instead that a society that attempts to minimize the disadvantage created by impairment benefits not only people with disabilities now but those who may someday become disabled.
114. Christine Jolls, Antidiscrimination and Accommodation, 115 HARV. L. REV. 642 (2001);
115. See, e.g., US Airways, Inc. v. Barnett, 535 U. S. 391, 402-06 (2002).
116. See Elizabeth F. Emens, Integrating Accommodation, 156 U. PA. L. REV. 839, 842, 867-76 (2008).
117. See, e.g., Ron Amundson, Disability, Handicap, and the Environment, 23 J. SOC. PHIL. 105, 116 (1992).
118. See 76 Fed. Reg. 16, 997-98 (Mar. 25, 2011)
119. Am. Council of the Blind v. Paulson, 525 F.3d 1256 (D. C. Cir. 2008).
120. Am. Council of the Blind v. Paulson, 581 F. Supp. 2d 1 (D. D. C. 2008).
121. 525 F.3d at 1272-73.
122. See Nat'l Materials Advisory Board, Currency Features for Visually Impaired People, NAT'L ACADEMIES PRESS, 106-12(1995), http://www.nap. edu/openbook.php?record-id=4828&page=Rl.
123. See, e.g., Shiny Jess, The App that Reads Money for the Blind (and Tourists), TECH DIGEST (Mar. 11, 2011), http://www.techdigest.tv/2011/03/the- app-that-re.html.
124. National Federation of the Blind Comments on Federal Court Ruling on U. S. Currency: Views Effort As Dangerously Misguided, FREE LIBR. BY FARLEX (Nov. 29, 2006), http://www.thefreelibrary.com/-/print/PrintArticle.aspx?id=155151019
125. See, e.g., Elizabeth F. Emens, Intimate Discrimination: The State's Role in the Accidents of Sex and Love, 122 HARV. L. REV. 1307, 1366-79 (2009).
126. See, e.g., Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U. S. C. §§ 1400-1482 (2006).
127. See, e.g., Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, 42 U. S. C. §§ 12101-12117 (2006).
128. See, e.g., 42 U. S. C. §§ 12181-12189.
129. See, e.g., 42 U. S. C. § 2000a-6;
130. Tennessee v. Lane, 541 U. S. 509 (2004).
131. See, e.g., Olmstead v. L. C., 527 U. S. 581 (1999) (community integration).
132. See, e.g., Patrick W. Corrigan & David L. Penn, Lessons from Social Psychology on Discrediting Psychiatric Stigma, 54 AM. PSYCHOLOGIST 765, 772-73 (1999);
133. Donna M. Desforges et al., Effects of Structured Cooperative Contact on Changing Negative Attitudes Toward Stigmatized Social Groups, 60 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 531 (1991);
134. Monika E. Kolodziej & Blair T. Johnson, Interpersonal Contact and Acceptance of Persons with Psychiatric Disorders: A Research Synthesis, 64 J. CONSULTING & CLINICAL PSYCHOL. 1387 (1996);
135. Dianna L. Stone & Adrienne Colella, A Model of Factors Affecting the Treatment of Disabled Individuals in Organizations, 21 ACAD. MGMT. REV. 352 (1996).
136. see Thomas F. Pettigrew & Linda R. Tropp, A Meta-Analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theory, 90 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 751 (2006).
137. See GORDON W. ALLPORT, THE NATURE OF PREJUDICE (1954).
138. Cynthia L. Estlund, Working Together: The Workplace, Civil Society, and the Law, 89 GEO. L. J. 1, 23-24 (2000);
139. Jerry Kang & Mahzarin R. Banaji, Fair Measures: A Behavioral Realist Revision of "Affirmative Action", 94 CALIF. L. REV. 1063, 1101-02 (2006);
140. see also Linda Hamilton Krieger, Civil Rights Perestroika: Intergroup Relations After Affirmative Action, 86 CALIF. L. REV. 1251, 1331 (1998).
141. See, e.g., RICHARD H. THALER & CASS R. SUNSTEIN, NUDGE: IMPROVING DECISIONS ABOUT HEALTH, WEALTH, AND HAPPINESS (2008);
142. Ian Ayres, Menus Matter, 73 U. CHI. L. REV. 3 (2006);
143. Colin Camerer et al., Regulation for Conservatives: Behavioral Economics and the Case for "Asymmetric Paternalism", 151 U. PA. L. REV. 1211 (2003);
144. Cass R. Sunstein & Richard H. Thaler, Libertarian Paternalism Is Not an Oxymoron, 70 U. CHI. L. REV. 1159 (2003)
145. See, e.g., Ian Ayres & Robert Gertner, Filling Gaps in Incomplete Contracts: An Economic Theory of Default Rules, 99 YALE L. J. 87, 87-92 (1989);
146. Charles J. Goetz & Robert E. Scott, The Mitigation Principle: Toward a General Theory of Contractual Obligation, 69 VA. L. REV. 967, 971 (1983).
147. see also, e.g., N. Y. DOM. REL. LAW § 15 (1) (b) (McKinney 2010).
148. see Naomi Nakata et al.. Trends in Prenatal Screening and Diagnostic Testing Among Women Referred for Advanced Maternal Age, 30 PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS 198 (2010)
149. See, e.g., PRENATAL TESTING AND DISABILITY RIGHTS, supra note 35;
150. Darrin P. Dixon, Informed Consent or Institutionalized Eugenics? How the Medical Profession Encourages Abortion of Fetuses with Down Syndrome, 24 ISSUES L. & MED. 3 (2008);
151. Sonia Mateu Suter, The Routinization of Prenatal Testing, 28 AM. J. L. & MED. 233 (2002).
152. Invasive Prenatal Testing for Aneuploidy, 110 OBSTETRICS & GYNECOLOGY 1459, 1462 (2007).
153. ACOG, Prenatal Diagnosis of Fetal Chromosomal Abnormalities, 97 OBSTETRICS & GYNECOLOGY supp. 1-12 (2001).
154. See, e.g., Julie Chevalier Sapp et al.. Ambivalence Toward Undergoing Invasive Prenatal Testing: An Exploration of Its Origins, 30 PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS 77, 77 (2010) (citing studies for the one in two hundred to one in three hundred statistic);
155. Amer. Pregnancy Ass'n, Amniocentesis, http://www.americanpregnancy.org/ prenataltesting/amniocentesis.html (last updated Apr. 2006)
156. Mayo Clinic Staff, Amniocentesis: Risks, http://www.mayoclinic.com/ health/amniocentesis/MY00155/DSECTION=risks (May 15, 2010) ("Second- trimester amniocentesis carries a slight risk of miscarriage-between 1 in 300 and 1 in 500. Research suggests that the risk of miscarriage is higher for amniocentesis done before 15 weeks of pregnancy.");
157. Keith A. Edelman et al., Pregnancy Loss Rates After Midtrimester Amniocentesis, 108 OBSTETRICS & GYNECOLOGY 1067, 1072 (2006)
158. See, e.g., Cathy J. Jones, Autonomy and Informed Consent in Medical Decisionmaking: Toward a New Self-Fulfilling Prophecy, 47 WASH. & LEE L. REV. 379, 400-02 (1990);
159. see also Adrian Edwards et al., Presenting Risk Information: A Review of the Effects of "Framing" and Other Manipulations on Patient Outcomes, 6 J. HEALTH COMM.: INT'L PERSP. 61 (2001);
160. Isaac M. Lipkus, Numeric, Verbal, and Visual Formats of Conveying Health Risks: Suggested Best Practices and Future Recommendations, 27 MED. DECISION MAKING 696, 709 (2007).
161. See, e.g., Benjamin Moulton & Jaime S. King, Aligning Ethics with Medical Decision-Making: The Quest for Informed Patient Choice, 38 J. L. MED. & ETHICS 85, 89 (2010).
162. See Dov Fox & Christopher L. Griffin, Jr., Disability-Selective Abortion and the Americans with Disabilities Act, 2009 UTAH L. REV. 845, 851.
163. Cf, e.g., Jan M. Hodgson et al., "Testing Times, Challenging Choices": An Australian Study of Prenatal Genetic Counseling, 19 J. GENETIC COUNSELING 22, 34 (2010)
164. Eduardo Fajnzylber et al., An Economic Model of Amniocentesis Choice (Nat'l Bureau of Econ. Research, Working Paper No. 16306, 2010), available at http://papers.nber.org/papers/wl6306.
165. Ainsley J. Newson, Ethical Aspects Arising from Non-Invasive Fetal Diagnosis, 13 SEMINARS FETAL & NEONATAL MED. 103 (2008);
166. Ananda van den Heuvel et al., Will the Introduction of Non-Invasive Prenatal Diagnostic Testing Erode Informed Choices? An Experimental Study of Health Care Professionals, 78 PATIENT EDUC. & COUNSELING 24 (2010).
167. See, e.g., Rayna Rapp, Refusing Prenatal Diagnosis: The Uneven Meaning of Bioscience in a Multicultural World, 23 SCI., TECH., & HUM. VALUES 45, 55, 58-59 (1998)
168. See, e.g., BARBARA KATZ ROTHMAN, THE TENTATIVE PREGNANCY: HOW AMNIOCENTESIS CHANGES THE EXPERIENCE OF PREGNANCY 251 (1993)
169. (citing Norman M. Ford, Ethical Aspects of Prenatal Screening and Diagnosis, in GENETICS AND ETHICS: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDY 197, 198-200) (Gerard Magill ed., 2004)
170. For a discussion, see Mary Ann Baily, Why I Had Amniocentesis, in PRENATAL TESTING AND DISABILITY RIGHTS, supra note 35, at 64.
171. Prenatally and Postnatally Diagnosed Conditions Awareness Act, Pub. L. No. 110-374, 122 Stat. 4051 (2008)
172. (to be codified at 42 U. S. C. § 280g-8).
173. Prenatally and Postnatally Diagnosed Conditions Awareness Act, S. 1810, 110th Cong. § 3 (d) (2007) (version introduced in Senate), http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-110sl810is/pdf/BILLS-110sl810is.pdf.
174. Brownback's press release claims that ninety percent of fetuses diagnosed with Down syndrome are aborted. Press Release, Office of Senator Sam Brownback, Brownback, Kennedy Reintroduce Pre-Natally and Post-Natally Diagnosed Conditions Awareness Act (July 18, 2007), available at http://www.jfanow.org/ jfanow/index.php?mode=P&id=3351. Other sources suggest that it is very hard to make these estimates, and the extant estimates in the United States are far lower than ninety percent and also lower as compared to other countries.
175. See, e.g., Armand Marie Leroi, The Future of Neo-Eugenics, 7 EMBO REP. 1184, 1184 (2006)
176. see also Caroline Mansfield et al., Termination Rates After Prenatal Diagnosis of Down Syndrome, Spina Bifida, Anencephaly, and Turner and Klinefelter Syndromes: A Systematic Literature Review, 19 PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS 808, 810 tbl.l (1999) (reporting U. K. abortion rates of ninety-two percent following a prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome).
177. see Adrienne Asch & David Wasserman, Informed Consent and Prenatal Testing: The Kennedy-Brownback Act, 11 VIRTUAL MENTOR 721, 723 (2009).
178. See Allison C. Carey, ON THE MARGINS OF CITIZENSHIP: INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY AND CIVIL RIGHTS IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY AMERICA 210 (2009)
179. Annette Patterson & Martha Satz, Genetic Counseling and the Disabled: Feminism Examines the Stance of Those Who Stand at the Gate, 17 HYPATIA, Summer 2002, at 118, 131
180. see Adrienne Asch et al., Prenatal Testing, in OUR BODIES, OURSELVES: PREGNANCY AND BIRTH 109 (2008).
181. See, e.g., DISTHIS! FILM SERIES, http://www.disthis.org (last visited Aug. 20, 2012);
182. THE GIMP PROJECT, http://www.thegimpproject.com/gimp (last visited Aug. 20, 2012);
183. see MICHAEL BERUBE, LIFE AS WE KNOW IT: A FATHER, A FAMILY, AND AN EXCEPTIONAL CHILD 80-85 (1996).
184. See, e.g., RICHARD P. COMPTON & PATRICIA ELLISON-POTTER, NAT'L HIGHWAY TRAFFIC SAFETY ADMIN., TEEN DRIVER CRASHES: A REPORT TO CONGRESS 1 (2008)
185. SOC'Y FOR ADOLESCENT HEALTH & MED., Adolescents and Driving: A Position Paper of the Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine, 47 J. ADOLESCENT HEALTH 212, 213 (2010)
186. see also Colin D. Mathers & Dejan Loncar, Projections of Global Mortality and Burden of Disease from 2002 to 2030, 3 PLOS MED. 2011, 2026 tbl.5 y (2006) (reporting that driving accidents were the eighth leading cause of "disability-adjusted life years" (DALYs) worldwide in 2002). The rates are higher in the U. S.
187. See, e.g., Matthew T. McKenna et al., Assessing the Burden of Disease in the United States Using Disability-Adjusted Life Years, 28 AM. J. PREVENTATIVE MED. 415, 418 tbls.3 & 4 (2005)
188. See, e.g., HELL'S HIGHWAY: THE TRUE STORY OF HIGHWAY SAFETY FILMS (Kino International 2002);
189. Stephanie Clifford, Doubts About Scare Tactics on Drivers Who Text, N. Y. TIMES, Sept. 1, 2009, at Bl (describing a gruesome Welsh educational video about texting while driving that went viral as "the stuff of American worst-case driver-education films" and presenting criticism of such tactics from U. S. experts);
190. Jennifer Morse, Should a School Use Graphic Violence to Teach Driving Safety?, CIRCLE OF MOMS (Apr. 28, 2010), http://www.circleofmoms.com/kids-aged- over-10yrs-old./shoulda-school-use-graphic-violence-to-teach-driving-safty- 529722.
191. See Caroline Wang, Culture, Meaning and Disability: Injury Prevention Campaigns and the Production of Stigma, 35 SOC. SCI. & MED. 1093 (1992)
192. Caroline C. Wang, Portraying Stigmatized Conditions: Disabling Images in Public Health, 3 J. HEALTH COMM.: INT'L PERSP. 149 (1998)
193. Wang, Portraying Stigmatized Conditions, supra note 197, at 153.
194. See, e.g., Sean Strub, 'It's Never Just HIV Ad Campaign Oversimplifies the Issue, HUFFINGTON POST (Jan. 4, 2011, 6:22 PM), http://www.huffingtonpost. com/sean-strub/its-never-just-hiv-b-804438.html ("We can and should tell young people that HIV is very bad and they don't want to get it, but we can do that without condemning or stigmatizing people who already have HIV.").
195. See Wang, Culture, Meaning and Disability, supra note 197.
196. See Wang, Portraying Stigmatized Conditions, supra note 197, at 150-54.
197. See, e.g., COMPTON & ELLISON-POTTER, supra note 195;
198. SOC'Y FOR ADOLESCENT HEALTH & MED., supra note 195;
199. Allan F. Williams, Contribution of the Components of Graduated Licensing to Crash Reductions, 38 J. SAFETY RES. 177 (2007);
200. Michelle Browning Coughlin, Note, Proposing a Uniform National Graduated Driver License Law to Reduce Motor-Vehicle Fatalities Among Teenagers, 46 U. LOUISVILLE L. REV. 495 (2008);
201. Veli-Pekka Kallberg, Supreme-European Best Practice in Road Safety, VIA NORDICA 2008 (MAY 26, 2008), http://vianordica2008.vegagerdin. is/vetenskapligt-webb/Tisdag/Session5-sal5/Kallberg.pdf.
202. See, e.g., ELIZABETH S. SCOTT & LAURENCE STEINBERG, RETHINKING JUVENILE JUSTICE 13-16 (2008) (citing sources).
203. Olivier JY Monneuse et al., Attitudes About Injury Among High School Students, 207 J. AM. C. SURGEONS 179, 179-80 (2008).
204. Tova Rosenbloom et al., Effectiveness of Road Safety Workshop for Young Adults, 47 SAFETY SCI. 608, 609 (2009)
205. Cf, e.g., Adam Bourne, The Role of Fear in HIV Prevention, SIGMA RES. (Sept. 2010), http://www.sigmaresearch.org.uk/files/MiC-briefing-l-Fear.pdf
206. Wang, Portraying Stigmatized Conditions, supra note 197, at 153.
207. Metuffer Films, Invitation to Dance, http://invitationtodancemovie.com/ (last visited Sept. 4, 2012).
208. See Wang, Culture, Meaning and Disability, supra note 197, at 1101.
209. On telethons, see, for example, JOSEPH P. SHAPIRO, NO PITY: PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES FORGING A NEW CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT 20-24 (1994).
210. Cf. Michael Waterstone, Returning Veterans and Disability Law, 85 NOTRE DAME L. REV. 1081, 1096-97 (2010)
211. See Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act, 15 U. S. C. §§ 1331-1341 (2006).
212. Pub. L. No. 111-31, 123 Stat. 1776 (2009).
213. Required Warnings for Cigarette Packages and Advertisements, 76 Fed. Reg. 36, 628, (June 22, 2011)
214. (to be codified at 21 C. F. R. pt. 1141). To view the images
215. see Cigarette Health Warnings, U. S. FOOD & DRUG ADMIN., http://www.fda.gov/TobaccoProducts/Labeling/Labeling/CigaretteWarningLabels/ default.htm (last updated Feb. 24, 2012).
216. Compare Disc. Tobacco City & Lottery, Inc. v. United States, 674 F.3d 509 (6th Cir. 2012) (upholding the warnings)
217. with R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Co. v. Food & Drug Admin., No. 12-5063, 2012 WL 3632003 (D. C. Cir. Aug. 24, 2012) (striking down the warnings);
218. see also Duff Wilson, Tobacco Firms Sue to Block Marketing Law, N. Y. TIMES, Sept. 1, 2009, at Bl.
219. See Adult Cigarette Smoking in the United States: Current Estimate, CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data- statistics/fact-sheets/adult-data/cig-smoking/index.htm
220. See Required Warnings for Cigarette Packages and Advertisements, 76 Fed. Reg. at 36, 628.
221. Disc. Tobacco City & Lottery, Inc. v. United States, Nos. 10-5234, 10-5235 (6th Cir. Sept. 28, 2010)
222. Cf. Disc. Tobacco City & Lottery, Inc., 674 F.3d at 526
223. see, for example, Anita Silvers, "Defective" Agents: Equality, Difference and the Tyranny of the Normal, 25 J. SOC. PHIL. 154, 168-69 (1994) (discussing her disabled majority inquiry).
224. See Cigarette Health Warnings, supra note 240.
225. See, e.g., Loraine Devos-Comby & Peter Salovey, Applying Persuasion Strategies to Alter HIV-Relevant Thoughts and Behavior, 6 REV. GEN. PSYCHOL. 287, 291-92 (2002).
226. Cigarette Health Warnings, supra note 240;
227. Cigarette Health Warnings, supra note 240.
228. cf. Andrew Caplin, Fear As a Policy Instrument, in TIME AND DECISION: ECONOMIC AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON INTERTEMPORAL CHOICE 441 (George Loewenstein et al. eds., 2003)
229. Required Warnings for Cigarette Packages and Advertisements, 76 Fed. Reg. 36, 628, 36, 635 (June 22, 2011)
230. (to be codified at 21 C. F. R. pt. 1141).
231. *2 (D. C. Cir. Aug. 24, 2012)
232. see Adam R. Pulver, Note, An Imperfect Fit: Obesity, Public Health, and Disability Antidiscrimination Law, 41 COLUM. J. L. & SOC. PROBS. 365 (2008).
233. See Required Warnings for Cigarette Packages and Advertisements, 76 Fed. Reg. at 36, 652-53.
234. See Cigarette Health Warnings, supra note 240;
235. *14 (Rogers, J., dissenting) (concluding that the new warning labels pass constitutional muster, but for the requirement that they bear the 1-800-QUIT-NOW number). This is part of the approach that pairs concerning or inspiring information with immediate access to help taking steps toward quitting.
236. See Required Warnings for Cigarette Packages and Advertisements, 76 Fed. Reg. at 36, 686-87. This link to other resources could also be used to provide more information about disability, or this kind of format could be used-on cigarette or other warning labels, such as for medication-to present the address of a website listing various resources for learning more about disability along the lines discussed here.
237. See Stuart Elliott, Provident Hopes Using a Different Name for Disability
238. U. S. DEP'T OF LABOR & U. S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS, National Compensation Survey: Employee Benefits in Private Industry in the United States, March 2006, BUREAU LAB. STAT. 1 (Aug. 2006), http://www.bls.gov/ncs/ebs/sp/ ebsm0004.pdf.
239. U. S. DEP'T OF LABOR & U. S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS, National Compensation Survey: Employee Benefits in the United States, March 2010, BUREAU LAB. STAT, tbl.17 [p. 237] (Sept. 2010), http://www.bls.gov/ncs/ebs/benefits/ 2010/ebbl0046.pdf (reporting that thirty-three percent of workers in private industry had access to long-term disability benefits in 2010 (up from thirty percent), and ninety-five percent of those workers participated in such a plan). Such high participation rates presumably reflect the fact that disability insurance plans covered by the DOL survey are "usually fully employer-paid"
240. Michelle Andrews, Employers Shift Disability Insurance Costs to Workers and Trim Benefits, WASHINGTON POST, Sept. 19, 2011.
241. U. S. DEP'T OF LABOR & U. S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS, supra note 270, at 2 ("Only 17 percent of those earning under $15 had access to [long-term disability insurance]
242. See, e.g., Karen Terry, Breaking the DI Sales Barrier, LIMRA'S MARKETFACTS Q., no. 1, 2012 at 64, 65-67;
243. see also Jinkook Lee, A Key to Marketing Financial Services: The Right Mix of Products, Services, Channels and Customers, 16 J. SERVICES MARKETING 238, 245 (2002) (finding that a plurality of the consumers surveyed preferred to purchase disability insurance through face-to-face transactions, though some were open to other methods).
244. For additional information about the process of applying for long-term disability insurance, see generally Long-Term Disability Income Insurance: Financial Protection for You & Your Family, CONSUMER FED'N AM. (NOV. 7, 2000), http://www.consumerfed.org/pdfs/ltdbrochure.pdf.
245. Frequently Asked Questions, DOCTOR DISABILITY, http://www. doctordisability.com/faqs/ (last visited Aug. 20, 2012);
246. see also Frequently Asked Questions About Disability Insurance, 4-DISABILITY-INS.-QUOTES, http://www.ezdisabilityquote.eom/resources/faq/ #medicalexam (last visited Aug. 20, 2012).
247. Chances of Disability, COUNCIL FOR DISABILITY AWARENESS, http://www.disabilitycanhappen.org/chances-disability/causes.asp (last visited Aug. 20, 2012).
248. See Ron Lieber, The Odds of a Disability Are Themselves Odd, N. Y. TIMES (Feb. 5, 2010) http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/06/your-money/life-and-disability- insurance/06money.html.
249. Learn the Basics in a Fraction of the Time, EDISABILITYQUOTES, http://www.edisabilityquotes.com/learning-center/disability-university/ learning-the-basics/ (last visited Aug. 20, 2012)
250. see also Disability Insurance Overview, METLIFE, http://www.metlife.com/ individual/insurance/disability-insurance/index.htmasics (last visited Aug. 20, 2012) ("You wake up one morning and things are different... What started off as a normal day at work, quickly turned into a bout of disability leaves.");
251. The Basics of Long-Term Disability Insurance, INSURE. COM (Jan. 29, 2010), http://www.insure.com/articles/disabilityinsurance/long-term-disability. html ("You may not realize the potential danger of becoming disabled [T]he average long-term disability (LTD) absence from work lasts 2.5 years, according to the Council for Disability Awareness (CDA). That's a long time to survive without a steady income.").
252. The Basics of Long-Term Disability Insurance, supra note 280.
253. Safeguard Your Lifestyle and Financial Future with MetLife's Disability Insurance, METLIFE, https://intramet.investmet.com/public/doclib/LifeMarketing/ Flash/DisabilityConsumer/DCBP.html (last visited Aug. 20, 2012).
254. Daniel C. Steenerson, In the Blink of an Eye... Disability Happens, HEALTH INS. UNDERWRITER, April 2011, at 12.
255. Dave Willis, On Target with Your DI Sales, ADVISOR TODAY, May 2010, at 42, 44.
256. See, e.g., Rosemarie Rossetti, Selling Disability Income Insurance with Conviction, LIFEHEALTHPRO (June 18, 2009), http://www.lifehealthpro.com/2009/06/ 18/selling-disability-incomeinsurance-with-convictio (drawing on her personal experience of being disabled in an accident and characterizing disability-insurance agents' role as the "power of helping a person to take back their life and adjust to their disability");
257. See Matthew Lubanko, Stressing Able in Disabled, HARTFORD COURANT (Oct. 16, 1998)
258. Michelle Jeffers, The Hartford Teams with U. S. Paratympics, ADWEEK, Apr. 8, 2003, available at http://www.adweek.com/news/advertising/hartford-teams-us- paralympics-63195.
259. See, e.g., Joan Meyers-Levy & Laura A. Peracchio, Moderators of the Impact of Self-Reference on Persuasion, 22 J. CONSUMER RES. 408, 408 (1996).
260. Cf. Debra Lynn Stephens & Karyn Bergman, The Americans with Disabilities Act: A Mandate for Marketers, 14 J. PUB. POL'Y & MKTG. 164, 167 (Spring 1995)
261. see, for example, Jill Elaine Hasday, Mitigation and the Americans with Disabilities Act, 103 MLCH. L. REV. 217 (2004).
262. Hill v. Colorado, 530 U. S. 703, 789 (2000)
263. Compare, e.g., Deborah Kent, Somewhere a Mockingbird, in PRENATAL TESTING AND DISABILITY RIGHTS, supra note 35, at 57
264. with Mary Ann Baily, Why I Had Amniocentesis, in PRENATAL TESTING AND DISABILITY RIGHTS, supra note 35, at 64.
265. Cf, e.g., Jeannie Suk, The Trajectory of Trauma: Bodies and Minds of Abortion Discourse, 110 COLUM. L. REV. 1193 (2010)
266. See, e.g., Carol Sanger, Seeing and Believing: Mandatory Ultrasound and the Path to a Protected Choice, 56 UCLA L. Rev. 351 (2008).
267. See Nadia N. Sawicki, The Abortion Informed Consent Debate: More Light, Less Heat, 21 CORNELL J. L. & PUB. POL'Y 1, 9 (2011).
268. See Toni M. Massaro, The Meanings of Shame: Implications for Legal Reform, 3 PSYCHOL., PUB. POL'Y, & L. 645 (1997) (discussing shaming penalties and teen responses);
269. cf. J. G. BALLARD, CRASH (1973) (offering a narrative of lust in response to car crashes).
270. See, e.g., Allison Daniello et al., Effectiveness of Motorcycle Training and Licensing, TRANSP. RES. REC: J. TRANSP. RES. BOARD, no. 2140, 2009, at 206, 212
271. Sunstein & Thaler, Libertarian Paternalism, supra note 141, at 1198-99.
272. Lawrence Lessig, The Regulation of Social Meaning, 62 U. CHI. L. REV. 943, 1016-19 (1995).
273. This is akin to what psychologists call "reactance." See, e.g., SHARON S. BREHM & JACK W. BREHM, PSYCHOLOGICAL REACTANCE: A THEORY OF FREEDOM AND CONTROL 3-4 (1981) ("[T]he theory [of psychological reactance] holds that a threat to or loss of a freedom motivates the individual to restore that freedom.").
274. See Mary Ann Baily, Why I Had Amniocentesis, in PRENATAL TESTING AND DISABILITY RIGHTS, supra note 35, at 70.
275. See, e.g., Gary T. Schwartz, The Beginning and Possible End of the Rise of Modern American Tort Law, 26 GA. L. REV. 601, 688 (1992).
276. See, e.g., Hood v. Ryobi Am. Corp., 181 F.3d 608, 611 (4th Cir. 1999);
277. W. Kip Viscusi, Individual Rationality, Hazard Warnings, and the Foundations of Tort Law, 48 RUTGERS L. REV. 625 (1996);
278. James A. Henderson, Jr. & Aaron D. Twerski, Doctrinal Collapse in Products Liability: The Empty Shell of Failure to Warn, 65 N. Y. U. L. REV. 265, 300 (1990).
279. Cf. George Loewenstein, Emotions in Economic Theory and Economic Behavior, 90 AM. ECON. REV. 426, 430 (2000) (discussing the effects of "hot" visceral states on decision making).
280. See, e.g., Tom Hertz, Understanding Mobility in America, CENTER FOR AM. PROGRESS 3, 10 (Apr. 26, 2006), http://vvTvw.americanprogress.org/issues/2006/ 04/Hertz-MobilityAnalysis.pdf.
281. See Convention and Optional Protocol Signatures and Ratifications, UNITED NATIONS ENABLE, http://www.un.org/disabilities/countries.asp7icM66 (last visited Aug. 20, 2012).
282. See Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, UNITED NATIONS ENABLE (Dec. 6, 2006), http://www.un.org/disabilities/convention/ conventionfull.shtml.