Outgassing history and escape of the martian atmosphere and water inventory

Space Science Reviews

Volumn 174, Issue 1-4, 2013, Pages 113-154

  Lammer, Helmut ^a   Chassefière, Eric ^b   Karatekin, Özgür ^c   Morschhauser, Achim ^d   Niles, Paul B ^e   Mousis, Olivier ^f,g   Odert, Petra ^a,h   Möstl, Ute V ^h   Breuer, Doris ^d   Dehant, Véronique ^c   Grott, Matthias ^d   Gröller, Hannes ^a   Hauber, Ernst ^d   Pham, Lê Binh San ^c  

^a Austrian Academy of Sciences   (Austria)

^b UNIVERSITÉ PARIS SUD   (France)

^c ROYAL OBSERVATORY OF BELGIUM   (Belgium)

^d GERMAN AEROSPACE CENTER DLR   (Germany)

^e NASA JOHNSON SPACE CENTER   (United States)

^f OBSERVATOIRE DE BESANÇON   (France)

^g OBSERVATOIRE MIDI PYRÉNÉES   (France)

^h UNIVERSITY OF GRAZ   (Austria)

Author keywords

Atmospheric evolution; Early Mars; Impacts; Magma ocean; Nonthermal escape; Thermal escape; Volcanic outgassing; Young Sun

Indexed keywords

ATMOSPHERIC EVOLUTION; EARLY MARS; IMPACTS; MAGMA OCEAN; NONTHERMAL; THERMAL ESCAPE; VOLCANIC OUTGASSING;

CARBON DIOXIDE; HYDROGEN;

DEGASSING;

EID: 84871792698     PISSN: 00386308     EISSN: 15729672     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11214-012-9943-8     Document Type: Article

References (216)

1. Y. Abe, Thermal and chemical evolution of the terrestrial magma ocean. Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 100, 27-39 (1997)
2. T.J. Ahrens, Impact erosion of terrestrial planetary atmospheres. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 21, 525-555 (1993) (Pubitemid 23395127)
3. F. Albarède, J. Blichert-Toft, The split fate of the early Earth, Mars, Venus and Moon. C. R. Géosci. 339, 917-927 (2007) (Pubitemid 350215295)
4. U.V. Amerstorfer, N.V. Erkaev, U. Taubenschuss, H.K. Biernat, Influence of a density increase on the evolution of the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability and vortices. Phys. Plasmas 17, 072901 (2010). doi: 10.1063/1.3453705
5. J.C. Andrews-Hanna, M.T. Zuber, W.B. Banerdt, The Borealis basin and the origin of the martian crustal dichotomy. Nature 453, 1212-1215 (2008) (Pubitemid 351913599)
6. S.K. Atreya, R.P. Mahaffy, A.S. Wong, Methane and related trace species on Mars: origin, loss, implications for life, and habitability. Planet. Space Sci. 55, 358-369 (2006) (Pubitemid 46186453)
7. V.R. Baker, Water and the martian landscape. Nature 412, 228-236 (2001) (Pubitemid 32674724)
8. J.L. Bandfield, T.D. Gloch, P.R. Christensen, Spectroscopic identification of carbonate minerals in the martian dust. Science 301, 1084-1086 (2003)
9. S. Barabash, A. Fedorov, R. Lundin, J.-A. Sauvaud, Martian atmospheric erosion rates. Science 315, 501-503 (2007) (Pubitemid 46175750)
10. R.H. Becker, R.N. Clayton, E.M. Galimov, H. Lammer, B. Marty, R.O. Pepin, R. Weiler, Isotopic signatures in terrestrial planets. Space Sci. Rev. 106, 377-410 (2003)
11. J.-P. Bibring, Y. Langevin, A. Gendrin, B. Gondet, F. Poulet, M. Berthé, A. Soufflot, R. Arvidson, N. Mangold, J. Mustard, P. Drossart, The OMEGA team, Mars surface diversity as revealed by the OMEGA/Mars Express observations. Science 307, 1576-1581 (2005) (Pubitemid 40354731)
12. J.-P. Bibring, Y. Langevin, J.F. Mustard, F. Poulet, R. Arvidson, A. Gendrin, B. Gondet, N. Mangold, P. Pinet, F. Forget, The OMEGA team, Global mineralogical and aqueous Mars history derived from OMEGA/Mars Express data. Science 312, 400-404 (2006)
13. L.E. Borg, D.S. Draper, A petrogenetic model for the origin and compositional variation of the Martian basaltic meteorites. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 38, 1713-1731 (2003) (Pubitemid 38301020)
14. L.H. Brace, R.F. Theis, W.R. Hoegy, Plasma clouds above the ionopause of Venus and their implications. Planet. Space Sci. 30, 29-37 (1982)
15. R. Brasser, The formation of Mars: building blocks and accretion time scale. Space Sci. Rev. (2012, in press). doi: 10.1007/s11214-012-9904-2
16. D. Breuer, T. Spohn, Viscosity of the Martian mantle and its initial temperature: constraints from crust formation history and the evolution of the magnetic field. Planet. Space Sci. 54, 153-169 (2006) (Pubitemid 43152261)
17. J.C. Bridges, D.C. Catling, J.M. Saxton, T.D. Swindle, I.C. Lyon, M.M. Grady, Alteration assemblages in martian meteorites: implications for near-surface processes. Space Sci. Rev. 96, 365-392 (2001) (Pubitemid 32842979)
18. R.M. Canup, E. Asphaug, Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth's formation. Nature 412, 708-712 (2001) (Pubitemid 32771988)
19. M.H. Carr, Mars - a water-rich planet? Icarus 68, 187-216 (1986)
20. M.H. Carr, Retention of an atmosphere on early Mars. J. Geophys. Res. 1042, 21897-21910 (1999)
21. E. Chassefière, Hydrodynamic escape of oxygen from primitive atmospheres: applications to the cases of Venus and Mars. Icarus 124, 537-552 (1996) (Pubitemid 126169315)
22. E. Chassefière, F. Leblanc, Mars atmospheric escape and evolution, interaction with the solar wind. Planet. Space Sci. 52, 1039-1058 (2004)
23. E. Chassefière, F. Leblanc, Constraining methane release due to serpentinization by the observed D/H ratio on Mars. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 310, 262-271 (2011a)
24. E. Chassefière, F. Leblanc, Explaining the redox imbalance between the H and O escape fluxes at Mars by the oxidation of methane. Planet. Space Sci. 59, 218-226 (2011b)
25. E. Chassefière, F. Leblanc, Constraining methane release due to serpentinization by the observed D/H ratio on Mars. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 310, 262-271 (2011c)
26. E. Chassefière, F. Leblanc, B. Langlais, The combined effects of escape and magnetic field histories at Mars. Planet. Space Sci. 55, 343-357 (2007) (Pubitemid 46186452)
27. J.Y. Chaufray, R. Modolo, F. Leblanc, G. Chanteur, R.E. Johnson, J.G. Luhmann, Mars solar wind interaction: formation of the Martian corona and atmospheric loss to space. J. Geophys. Res. 112(E9), E09009 (2007)
28. V. Chevrier, F. Poulet, J.-P. Bibring, Early geochemical environment of Mars as determined from thermodynamics of phyllosilicates. Nature 448, 60-63 (2007) (Pubitemid 47037007)
29. P. Christensen, Water at the poles and in permafrost regions of Mars. Elements 2, 151-155 (2006) (Pubitemid 46769181)
30. M.W. Claire, J. Sheets, M. Cohen, I. Ribas, V.S. Meadows, D.C. Catling, The evolution of solar flux from 0.1 nm to 160 μm: quantitative estimates for planetary studies. Astrophys. J. 757, 95 (2012), 12 pp.
31. S.M. Clifford, J. Lasue, E. Heggy, J. Boisson, P. McGovern, M.D. Max, Depth of the Martian cryosphere: revised estimates and implications for the existence and detection of subpermafrost groundwater. J. Geophys. Res. 115, E07001 (2010). doi: 10.1029/2009JE003462
32. R.A. Craddock, R. Greeley, Minimum estimates of the amount and timing of gases released into the martian atmosphere from volcanic eruptions. Icarus 204, 512-526 (2009)
33. N. Dauphas, The dual origin of the terrestrial atmosphere. Icarus 165, 326-339 (2003) (Pubitemid 37260930)
34. N. Dauphas, A. Pourmand, Hf-W-Th evidence for rapid growth of Mars and its status as a planetary embryo. Nature 473, 489-493 (2011)
35. V. Dehant, H. Lammer, Y.N. Kulikov, J.-M. Grießmeier, D. Breuer, O. Verhoeven, O. Karatekin, T. van Hoolst, O. Korablev, P. Lognonne, Planetary magnetic dynamo effect on atmospheric protection of early Earth and Mars. Space Sci. Rev. 129, 279-300 (2007) (Pubitemid 47289566)
36. J.M. Dohm, R.C. Anderson, N.G. Barlow, H. Miyamoto, A.G. Davies, G.J. Taylor, V.R. Baker, W.V. Boynton, J. Keller, K. Kerry, D. Janes, A.G. Fairén, D. Schulze-Makuch, M. Glamoclija, L. Marinangeli, G.G. Ori, R.G. Strom, J.-P. Williams, J.C. Ferris, J.A.P. Rodríguez, M.A. de Pablon, S. Karunatillake, Recent geological and hydrological activity on Mars: the Tharsis/Elysium corridor. Planet. Space Sci. 56, 985-1013 (2008)
37. T.M. Donahue, Evolution of water reservoirs on mars from D/H ratios in the atmosphere and crust. Nature 374, 432-434 (1995)
38. T.M. Donahue, Pre-global surveyor evidence for Martian ground water. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 98, 827-830 (2001) (Pubitemid 32121146)
39. T.M. Donahue, Accretion, loss, and fractionation of martian water. Icarus 167, 225-227 (2004) (Pubitemid 38117732)
40. J.D. Dorren, M. Güdel, E.F. Guinan, X-ray emission from the Sun in its youth and old age. Astrophys. J. 448, 431-436 (1995)
41. B.L. Ehlmann, J.F. Mustard, S.L. Murchie, F. Poulet, J.L. Bishop, A.J. Brown, W.M. Calvin, R.N. Clark, D.J. des Marais, R.E. Milliken, L.H. Roach, T.L. Roush, G.A. Swayze, J.J. Wray, Orbital identification of Carbonate-bearing rocks on Mars. Science 322, 1828-1832 (2008)
42. B.L. Ehlmann, J.F. Mustard, G.A. Swayze, R.N. Clark, J.L. Bishop, F. Poulet, D.J. des Marais, L.H. Roach, R.E. Milliken, J.J. Wray, O. Barnouin-Jha, S.L. Murchie, Identification of hydrated silicate minerals on Mars using MRO-CRISM: Geologic context near Nili Fossae and implications for aqueous alteration. J. Geophys. Res. 114, E00D08 (2009). doi: 10.1029/2009JE003339
43. B.L. Ehlmann et al., Geochemical consequences of widespread clay formation in Mars' Ancient Crust. Space Sci. Rev. (2012, this issue). doi: 10.1007/s11214-012-9930-0
44. L.T. Elkins-Tanton, Linked magma ocean solidification and atmospheric growth for Earth and Mars. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 271, 181-191 (2008)
45. O. Eugster, H. Busemann, S. Lorenzetti, D. Terrebilini, Ejection ages from krypton-81-krypton-83 dating and pre-atmospheric sizes of martian meteorites. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 37, 1345-1360 (2002) (Pubitemid 35281061)
46. A.G. Fairén, A cold and wet Mars. Icarus 208, 165-175 (2010)
47. J. Filiberto, A.H. Treiman, Martian magmas contained abundant chlorine, but little water. Geology 37, 1087-1090 (2009)
48. S. Fonti, G.A. Marzo, Mapping the methane on Mars. Astron. Astrophys. 512, A51 (2010)
49. F. Forget, R.T. Pierrehumbert, Warming early Mars with carbon dioxide clouds that scatter infrared radiation. Science 278, 1273-1276 (1997) (Pubitemid 27495735)
50. V. Formisano, S. Atreya, T. Encrenaz, N. Ignatiev, M. Giuranna, Detection of methane in the atmosphere of Mars. Science 306, 1758-1761 (2004) (Pubitemid 39601389)
51. + dissociative recombination: a source of thermal and nonthermal C on Mars. J. Geophys. Res. 109, A08306 (2004)
52. J.L. Fox, A.B. Hać, Photochemical escape of oxygen from Mars: a comparison of the exobase approximation to a Monte Carlo method. Icarus 204, 527-544 (2009)
53. A.A. Fraeman, J. Korenaga, The influence of mantle melting on the evolution of Mars. Icarus 210, 43-57 (2010)
54. E. Gaidos, G. Marion, Geological and geochemical legacy of a cold early Mars. J. Geophys. Res. 108(E6), 5055 (2003), pp. 9-1
55. A. Geminale, V. Formisano, M. Giuranna, Methane in Martian atmosphere: average spatial, diurnal, and seasonal behaviour. Planet. Space Sci. 56, 1194-1203 (2008)
56. A. Geminale, V. Formisano, G. Sindoni, Mapping methane in Martian atmosphere with PFS-MEX data. Planet. Space Sci. 59, 137-148 (2011)
57. T.M. Gerlach, E.J. Graeber, Volatile budget of Kilauea volcano. Nature 313, 273-277 (1985)
58. R. Gomes, H.F. Levison, K. Tsiganis, A. Morbidelli, Origin of the cataclysmic Late Heavy Bombardment period of the terrestrial planets. Nature 435, 466-469 (2005) (Pubitemid 40734240)
59. J.L. Gooding, S.J. Wentworth, M.E. Zolensky, Calcium-carbonate and sulfate of possible extraterrestrial origin in the Eeta-79001 meteorite. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 52, 909-915 (1988)
60. R. Greeley, B.B. Schneid, Magma generation on Mars - amounts, rates and comparisons with Earth, Moon, and Venus. Science 254, 996-998 (1991) (Pubitemid 21917426)
61. L.P. Greenland, Composition of gases from the 1984 eruption of Mauna Loa volcano, in Volcanism in Hawaii. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 1350, vol. 1 (U.S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, 1987a), pp. 781-790
62. L.P. Greenland, Hawaiian eruptive gases, in Volcanism in Hawaii. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 1350, vol. 1 (U.S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, 1987b), pp. 781-790
63. L.L. Griffith, E.L. Shock, A geochemical model for the formation of hydrothermal carbonates on Mars. Nature 377, 406-408 (1995) (Pubitemid 26457936)
64. L.L. Griffith, E.L. Shock, Hydrothermal hydration of Martian crust: illustration via geochemical model calculations. J. Geophys. Res. 102, 9135-9143 (1997)
65. R.E. Grimm, S.L. Painter, On the secular evolution of groundwater on Mars. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L24803 (2009). doi: 10.1029/2009GL041018
66. H. Gröller, V.I. Shematovich, H.I.M. Lichtenegger, H. Lammer, M. Pfleger, Yu.N. Kulikov, W. Macher, U.V. Amerstorfer, H.K. Biernat, Venus' atomic hot oxygen environment. J. Geophys. Res. 115, E12017 (2010)
67. H. Gröller, H. Lammer, H.I.M. Lichtenegger, M. Pfleger, O. Dutuit, V.I. Shematovich, Yu.N. Kulikov, H.K. Biernat, Hot oxygen atoms in the Venus nightside exosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 39, L03202 (2012). doi: 10.1029/2011GL050421
68. 2O on mars. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 308, 391-400 (2011)
69. M. Grott, D.D. Baratoux, E.E. Hauber, V.V. Sautter, J.J. Mustard, O.O. Gasnault, S.S. Ruff, S.-I. Karato, V.V. Debaille, M.M. Knapmeyer, F.F. Sohl, T.T. Van Hoolst, D.D. Breuer, A.A. Morschhauser, M.J. Toplis, Long-term evolution of the crust-mantle system. Space Sci. Rev. (2012, accepted). doi: 10.1007/s11214-012-9948-3
70. M. Güdel, E.F. Guinan, R. Mewe, J.S. Kaastra, S.L. Skinner, A determination of the coronal emission measure distribution in the young solar analog EK draconis from ASCA/EUVE spectra. Astrophys. J. 479, 416-426 (1997)
71. A.N. Halliday, The origin of the earliest history of the Earth. Treatise Geochem. 1, 509-557 (2003)
72. K. Hamano, Y. Abe, Pressure dependence of atmospheric loss by impact-induced vapor expansion, in The 37th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (2006), abs. 1562
73. P. Hartogh, D.C. Lis, D. Bockelée-Morvan, M. de Val-Borro, N. Biver, M. Küppers, M. Emprechtinger, E.A. Bergin, J. Crovisier, M. Rengel, R. Moreno, S. Szutowicz, G.A. Blake, Ocean-like water in the Jupiter-family comet 103P/Hartley 2. Nature 478, 218-220 (2011)
74. E. Hauber, P. Brozzî, F. Jagert, P. Jodlowski, T. Platz, Very recent and wide-spread basaltic volcanism on Mars. Geophys. Res. Lett. 38, L10201 (2011)
75. S.A. Hauck II, R.J. Phillips, Thermal and crustal evolution of Mars. J. Geophys. Res. 107, 5052 (2002), 19 pp.
76. C. Hayashi, K. Nakazawa, H. Mizuno, Earth's melting due to the blanketing effect of the primordial dense atmosphere. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 43, 22-28 (1979)
77. J.W. Head, D.R. Marchant, Inventory of ice-related deposits on mars: evidence for burial and long-term sequestration of ice in non-polar regions and implications for the water budget and climate evolution, in The 40th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (2009), abs. 1356
78. J.W. Head, S. Pratt, Extensive Hesperian-aged south polar ice sheet on mars: evidence for massive melting and retreat, and lateral flow and ponding of meltwater. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 12275-12300 (2001)
79. C.D.K. Herd, L.E. Borg, J.H. Jones, J.J. Papike, Oxygen fugacity and geochemical variations in the martian basalts: implications for martian basalt petrogenesis and the oxidation state of the upper mantle of mars. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 66, 2025-2036 (2002) (Pubitemid 34703912)
80. 2 from a reduced mantle and consequences for the early Martian greenhouse. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 270, 147-155 (2008)
81. 2 in MORB magmas and the carbon content of the mantle. Chem. Geol. 147, 89-97 (1998) (Pubitemid 28474412)
82. 2. Eur. J. Mineral. 4, 105-114 (1992)
83. J.W. Holt, A. Safaeinili, J.J. Plaut, J.W. Head III, R.J. Phillips, R. Seu Roberto, S.D. Kempf, P. Choudhary, D.A. Young, N.E. Putzig, D. Biccari, Y. Gim, Radar sounding evidence for buried glaciers in the southern mid-latitudes of Mars. Science 322, 1235-1238 (2008)
84. J. Horner, O. Mousis, J.-M. Petit, B.-W. Jones, Differences between the impact regimes of the terrestrial planets: implications for primordial D: H ratios. Planet. Space Sci. 57, 1338-1345 (2009)
85. D.M. Hunten, Atmospheric evolution of the terrestrial planets. Science 259, 915-920 (1993) (Pubitemid 23389859)
86. D.M. Hunten, R.O. Pepin, J.C.G. Walker, Mass fractionation in hydrodynamic escape. Icarus 69, 532-549 (1987)
87. W.-H. Ip, On a hot oxygen corona of Mars. Icarus 76, 135-145 (1988)
88. N. Iro, D. Gautier, F. Hersant, D. Bockelée-Morvan, J.-I. Lunine, An interpretation of the nitrogen deficiency in comets. Icarus 161, 511-532 (2003) (Pubitemid 36338666)
89. B.A. Ivanov, Mars/Moon cratering rate ratio estimates. Space Sci. Rev. 96, 87-104 (2001) (Pubitemid 32842972)
90. B.A. Ivanov, V.V. Shuvalov, N.A. Artemieva, Meteoritic bombardment in the Noachian time: influence on geological and atmospheric evolution, in Proc. 35th Microsymposium of the Brown University and the Vernadsky Institute (2002)
91. B.M. Jakosky, R.O. Pepin, R.E. Johnson, J.L. Fox, Mars atmospheric loss and isotopic fractionation by solar-wind-induced sputtering and photochemical escape. Icarus 111, 271-288 (1994)
92. M.C. Johnson, M.J. Rutherford, P.C. Hess, Chassigny petrogenesis: Melt compositions, intensive parameters and water contents of Martian magmas. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 55, 349-366 (1991)
93. 2 condensation and the climate of early Mars. Icarus 94, 1-13 (1991)
94. J.F. Kasting, The early Mars climate question heats up. Science 278, 1245 (1997) (Pubitemid 27495728)
95. J.F. Kasting, J.B. Pollack, Loss of water from Venus I. Hydrodynamic escape of hydrogen. Icarus 53, 479-508 (1983)
96. R.F. Katz, M. Spielman, C.H. Langmuir, A new parameterization of hydrous mantle melting. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 4, 1073 (2003)
97. J. Kim, A.F. Nagy, J.L. Fox, T.E. Cravens, Solar cycle variability of hot oxygen atoms at Mars. J. Geophys. Res. 103, 29339-29342 (1998) (Pubitemid 128665146)
98. T.T. Koskinen, M.J. Harris, R.V. Yelle, P. Lavvas, The escape of heavy atoms from the ionosphere of HD 209458b. I. A photochemical-dynamical model of the thermosphere. Icarus (2012, accepted). arXiv:1210.1536
99. V. Krasnopolsky, Note: on the deuterium abundance on Mars and some related problems. Icarus 148, 597-602 (2000)
100. V.A. Krasnopolsky, Some problems related to the origin of methane on Mars. Icarus 180, 359-367 (2006) (Pubitemid 43092585)
101. V.A. Krasnopolsky, P.D. Feldman, Detection of molecular hydrogen in the atmosphere of Mars. Science 294, 1914-1917 (2001) (Pubitemid 33101585)
102. V.A. Krasnopolsky, G.L. Bjoraker, M.J. Mumma, D.F. Jennings, High resolution spectroscopy of Mars at 3.7 and 8 μm. J. Geopys. Res. 102, 6525-6534 (1997)
103. V.A. Krasnopolsky, M.J. Mumma, G.R. Gladstone, Detection of atomic Deuterium in the upper atmosphere of Mars. Science 280, 1576-1580 (1998) (Pubitemid 28277697)
104. V.A. Krasnopolsky, J.-P. Maillard, T.C. Owen, Detection of methane in the Martian atmosphere: evidence for life? Icarus 172, 537-547 (2004) (Pubitemid 40030638)
105. M.A. Krestyanikova, V.I. Shematovich, Stochastic models of hot planetary and satellite coronas: a hot oxygen corona of Mars. Sol. Syst. Res. 40, 384-392 (2006) (Pubitemid 44569493)
106. H. Lammer, W. Stumptner, S.J. Bauer, Upper limits for the Martian exospheric number density during the planet B/Nozomi mission. Planet. Space Sci. 48, 1473-1478 (2000)
107. H. Lammer, C. Kolb, T. Penz, U.V. Amerstorfer, H.K. Biernat, B. Bodiselitsch, Estimation of the past and present martian water-ice reservoirs by isotopic constraints on exchange between the atmosphere and the surface. Int. J. Astrobiol. 2(3), 195-202 (2003)
108. H. Lammer, J.F. Kasting, E. Chassefière, R.E. Johnson, Y.N. Kulikov, F. Tian, Atmospheric escape and evolution of terrestrial planets and satellites. Space Sci. Rev. 139, 399-436 (2008)
109. H. Lammer, P. Odert, M. Leitzinger, M.L. Khodachenko, M. Panchenko, Yu.N. Kulikov, T.L. Zhang, H.I.M. Lichtenegger, N.V. Erkaev, G. Wuchterl, G. Micela, T. Penz, H.K. Biernat, J. Weingrill, M. Steller, H. Ottacher, J. Hasiba, A. Hanslmeier, Determining the mass loss limit for close-in exoplanets: what can we learn from transit observations? Astron. Astrophys. 506, 399-410 (2009)
110. H. Lammer, K.G. Kislyakova, P. Odert, M. Leitzinger, R. Schwarz, E. Pilat-Lohinger, Yu.N. Kulikov, M.L. Khodachenko, M. Güdel, A. Hanslmeier, Pathways to Earth-like atmospheres: extreme ultraviolet (EUV)-powered escape of hydrogen-rich protoatmospheres. Orig. Life Evol. Biosph. 41, 503-522 (2012)
111. J. Lasue, N. Mangold, E. Hauber, S. Clifford, W. Feldman, O. Gasnault, C. Grima, S. Maurice, O. Mousis, Quantifying the Martian hydrosphere: current evidence, time evolution and implications for the habitability of the planet. Space Sci. Rev. (2012, accepted). doi: 10.1007/s11214-012-9946-5
112. F. Leblanc, R.E. Johnson, Role of molecular species in pick up ion sputtering of the Martian atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 107, 1-6 (2002)
113. F. Lefèvre, F. Forget, Observed variations of methane on Mars unexplained by known atmospheric chemistry and physics. Nature 460, 720-723 (2002)
114. L.A. Leshin, S. Epstein, E.M. Stolper, Hydrogen isotope geochemistry of SNC meteorites. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 60, 2635-2650 (1996)
115. H.F. Levison, L. Dones, C.R. Chapman, A.S. Stern, M.J. Duncan, K. Zahnle, Could the lunar "late heavy bombardment" have been triggered by the formation of Uranus and Neptune. Icarus 151, 286-306 (2001). (Pubitemid 33668204)
116. B. Levrard, F. Forget, F. Montmessin, J. Laskar, Ice-rich deposits formed at high latitude on Mars by sublimation of unstable equatorial ice during low obliquity. Nature 431, 1072-1075 (2004) (Pubitemid 39472227)
117. J.G. Luhmann, J.U. Kozyra, Dayside pickup oxygen ion precipitation at Venus and Mars: spatial distributions, energy deposition and consequences. J. Geophys. Res. 96, 5457-5467 (1991)
118. J.G. Luhmann, R.E. Johnson, M.H.G. Zhang, Evolutionary impact of sputtering of the Martian atmosphere by o(+) pickup ions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 19, 2151-2154 (1992)
119. R. Lundin, Ion acceleration and outflow from Mars and Venus: an overview. Space Sci. Rev. 162, 309-334 (2011). doi: 10.1007/s11214-011-9811-y
120. R. Lundin, H. Lammer, I. Ribas, Planetary magnetic fields and solar forcing: implications for atmospheric evolution. Space Sci. Rev. 129, 245-278 (2007) (Pubitemid 47289565)
121. J.I. Lunine, J. Chambers, A. Morbidelli, L.A. Leshin, The origin of water on Mars. Icarus 165, 1-8 (2003) (Pubitemid 38354652)
122. J.I. Lunine, D.P. O'Brien, S.N. Raymond, A. Morbidelli, T. Qinn, A.L. Graps, Dynamical models of terrestrial planet formation. Adv. Sci. Lett. 4, 325-338 (2011)
123. J. Lyons, C. Manning, F. Nimmo, Formation of methane on Mars by fluid-rock interaction in the crust. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32, L13201.1-L13201.4 (2005)
124. Y.-J. Ma, A.F. Nagy, Ion escape fluxes from Mars. Geophys. Res. Lett. 34, L08201 (2007)
125. Y. Ma, A.F. Nagy, I.V. Sokolov, K.C. Hansen, Three-dimensional, multispecies, high spatial resolution MHD studies of the solar wind interaction with Mars. J. Geophys. Res. 109(A7), A07211 (2004)
126. C.V. Manning, C.P. McKay, K.J. Zahnle, Thick and thin models of the evolution of carbon dioxide on Mars. Icarus 180, 38-59 (2006) (Pubitemid 41763506)
127. C.V. Manning, Y. Ma, D.A. Brain, C.P. McKay, K.J. Zahnle, Parametric analysis of modeled ion escape from Mars. Icarus 212, 131-137 (2010)
128. B. Marty, A. Meibom, Noble gas signature of the late heavy bombardment in the Earth's atmosphere. Earth Discuss. 2, 99-113 (2007)
129. T. Matsui, Y. Abe, Impact-induced atmospheres and oceans on Earth and Venus. Nature 322, 526-528 (1986)
130. T. McCollom, W. Back, Thermodynamic constraints on hydrogen generation during serpentinization of ultramafic rocks. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 73, 856-875 (2009)
131. M.B. McElroy, T.M. Donahue, Stability of the Martian atmosphere. Science 177, 986-988 (1972)
132. H.Y. McSween, P.P. Harvey, Outgassed water on Mars: constraints from melt inclusions in SNC meteorites. Science 259, 1890-1892 (1993)
133. H.Y. McSween, K. Keil, Mixing relationships in the Martian regolith and the composition of globally homogeneous dust. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 64, 2155-2166 (2000) (Pubitemid 30458132)
134. H.Y. McSween, T.L. Grove, R.C. Lentz, J.C. Dann, A.H. Holzheid, L.R. Riciputi, J.G. Ryan, Geochemical evidence for magmatic water within Mars from pyroxenes in the Shergotty meteorite. Nature 409, 487-490 (2001) (Pubitemid 32144348)
135. H.J. Melosh, A.M. Vickery, Impact erosion of the primordial atmosphere of Mars. Nature 338, 487-489 (1989)
136. J.R. Michalski, P.B. Niles, Deep crustal carbonate rocks exposed by meteor impact on Mars. Nat. Geosci. 3, 751-755 (2010)
137. D.W. Mittlefehldt, ALH84001, a cumulate orthopyroxenite member of the Martian meteorite clan. Meteoritics 29, 214-221 (1994) (Pubitemid 24426435)
138. H. Mizuno, K. Nakazawa, C. Hayashi, Dissolution of the primordial rare gases into the molten Earth' material. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 50, 202-210 (1980)
139. R. Modolo, G.M. Chanteur, E. Dubinin, A.P. Matthews, Influence of the solar EUV flux on the Martian plasma environment. Ann. Geophys. 23, 1-12 (2005)
140. D. Möhlmann, Widen the belt of habitability! Orig. Life Evol. Biosph. 42, 93-100 (2012)
141. A. Morbidelli, J. Chambers, J.I. Lunine, J.M. Petit, F. Robert, G.B. Valsecchi, K. Cyr, Source regions and timescales for the delivery of water to Earth. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 35, 1309-1320 (2000) (Pubitemid 32045138)
142. A. Morbidelli, W.F. Bottke, D. Nesvorný, H.F. Levison, Asteroids were born big. Icarus 204, 558-573 (2009)
143. R.V. Morris, S.W. Ruff, R. Gellert, D.W. Ming, R.E. Arvidson, B.C. Clark, D.C. Golden, K. Siebach, G. Klingelhöfer, C. Schröder, I. Fleischer, A.S. Yen, S.W. Squyres, Identification of carbonate-rich outcrops on Mars by the spirit rover. Science 329, 421-424 (2010)
144. A. Morschhauser, M. Grott, D. Breuer, Crustal recycling, mantle dehydration, and the thermal evolution of Mars. Icarus 212, 541-558 (2011)
145. U.V. Möstl, N.V. Erkaev, M. Zellinger, H. Lammer, H. Gröller, H.K. Biernat, D. Korovinskiy, The Kelvin-Helmholtz instability at Venus: what is the unstable boundary? Icarus 216, 476-484 (2011)
146. O. Mousis, J.I. Lunine, J.-M. Petit, S. Picaud, B. Schmitt, D. Marquer, J. Horner, C. Thomas, Impact regimes and post-formation sequestration processes: implications for the origin of heavy noble gases in terrestrial planets. Astrophys. J. 714, 1418-1423 (2010)
147. O. Mousis, J.I. Lunine, E. Chassefière, F. Montmessin, A. Lakhlifi, S. Picaud, J.M. Petit, D. Cordier, Mars cryosphere: a potential reservoir for heavy noble gases? Icarus 218, 80-87 (2012)
148. M.J. Mumma, G.L. Villanueva, R.E. Novak, T. Hewagama, B.P. Bonev, M.A. DiSanti, A.M. Mandell, D.M. Smith, Strong release of methane on Mars in northern summer 2003. Science 323, 1041-1045 (2009)
149. J.F. Mustard, S.L. Murchie, S.M. Pelkey, B.L. Ehlmann, R.E. Milliken, J.A. Grant, J.-P. Bibring, F. Poulet, J. Bishop, E. Noe Dobrea, L. Roach, F. Seelos, R.E. Arvidson, S.R. Green, H. Hash, D. Humm, E. Malaret, J.A. McGovern, K. Seelos, T. Clancy, R. Clark, D.D. Marais, N. Izenberg, A. Knudson, Y. Langevin, T. Martin, P. McGuire, R. Morris, M. Robinson, T. Roush, M. Smith, G. Swayze, H. Taylor, T. Titus, M. Wolff, Hydrated silicate minerals on Mars observed by the Mars reconnaissance orbiter CRISM instrument. Nature 454, 305-309 (2008) (Pubitemid 352009992)
150. A.F. Nagy, J. Kim, T.E. Cravens, Hot hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the upper atmospheres of Venus and Mars. Ann. Geophys. 8, 251-256 (1990)
151. G. Neukum, D.U. Wise, Mars: a standard crater curve and possible new time scale. Science 194, 1381-1387 (1976)
152. G. Neukum, B.A. Ivanov, W.K. Hartmann, Cratering records in the inner Solar System in relation to the Lunar reference system. Space Sci. Rev. 96, 55-86 (2001) (Pubitemid 32842971)
153. 9.6 years. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, Suppl. 13, 293-301 (1980)
154. 2 at the Phoenix landing site. Science 329, 1334-1337 (2010)
155. P.B. Niles, D.C. Catling, G. Berger, E. Chassefière, B.L. Ehlmann, J.R. Michalski, R. Morris, S.W. Ruff, B. Sutter, Geochemistry of carbonates on Mars: implications for climate history and nature of aqueous environments. Space Sci. Rev. (2012). doi: 10.1007/s11214-012-9940-y
156. M.D. Norman, The composition and thickness of the crust of Mars estimated from REE and nd isotopic compositions of Martian meteorites. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 34, 439-449 (1999) (Pubitemid 29430884)
157. L.E. Nyquist, D.D. Bogard, C.-Y. Shih, A. Greshake, D. Stöffler, O. Eugster, Ages and geologic histories of martian meteorites. Space Sci. Rev. 96, 105-164 (2001) (Pubitemid 32842973)
158. D. Olsson-Steel, Collisions in the solar system. IV: cometary impacts upon the planets. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 227, 501-524 (1987)
159. C. O'Neill, A. Lenardic, A.M. Jellinek, W.S. Kiefer, Melt propagation and volcanism in mantle convection simulations, with applications for Martian volcanic and atmospheric evolution. J. Geophys. Res. 112, E07003 (2007)
160. T. Owen, A. Bar-Nun, Comets, impacts and atmospheres. Icarus 116, 215-226 (1995)
161. J.E. Owen, A.P. Jackson, Planetary evaporation by UV & X-ray radiation: basic hydrodynamics. Mont. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 425, 2931-2947 (2012)
162. T. Owen, A. Bar-Nun, I. Kleinfeld, Possible cometary origin of heavy noble gases in the atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars. Nature 358, 43-46 (1992)
163. C. Oze, M. Sharma, Have olivine, will gas: serpentinization and the abiogenic production of methane on Mars. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32, L10203 (2005)
164. T. Penz, N.V. Erkaev, H.K. Biernat, H. Lammer, U.V. Amerstorfer, H. Gunell, E. Kallio, S. Barabash, S. Orsini, A. Milillo, W. Baumjohann, Ion loss on Mars caused by the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. Planet. Space Sci. 52, 1157-1167 (2004)
165. R.O. Pepin, On the origin and early evolution of terrestrial planet atmospheres and meteoritic volatiles. Icarus 92, 2-79 (1991)
166. R.O Pepin, Origin of noble gases in the terrestrial planets. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 20, 389-430 (1992)
167. R.O. Pepin, Evolution of Earth's noble gases: consequences of assuming hydrodynamic loss driven by giant impact. Icarus 126, 148-156 (1997) (Pubitemid 127174351)
168. R.O. Pepin, Atmospheres on the terrestrial planets: clues to origin and evolution. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 252, 1-14 (2006) (Pubitemid 44742718)
169. L.B.S. Pham, Ö. Karatekin, V. Dehant, Effect of meteorite impacts on the atmospheric evolution of Mars. Astrobiology 9, 45-54 (2009)
170. L.B.S. Pham, Ö. Karatekin, V. Dehant, Effect of an meteorites and asteroids bombardments on the atmospheric evolution of Mars. EPSC Proc. 5, EPSC2010-127 (2010), 2 pp.
171. L.B.S. Pham, Ö. Karatekin, V. Dehant, Effects of impacts on the atmospheric evolution: comparison between Mars, Earth and Venus. Planet. Space Sci. 59, 1087-1092 (2011)
172. R.J. Phillips, M.T. Zuber, S.C. Solomon, M.P. Golombek, B.M. Jakosky, W.B. Banerdt, D.E. Smith, R.M.E. Williams, B.M. Hynek, O. Aharonson, S.A. Hauck II, Ancient geodynamics and global-scale hydrology on Mars. Science 291, 2587-2591 (2001) (Pubitemid 32249680)
173. 2 ice sequestered in the martian South Polar layered deposits. AGU, Fall Meeting, abs. P34A-01.2010 (2010)
174. R.J. Phillips, B.J. Davis, K.L. Tanaka, S.M. Byrne, T. Michael, N.E. Putzig, R.M. Haberle, M.A. Kahre, A. Melinda, B.A. Campbell, L.M. Carter, I.B.
175. E. Pierazzo, G. Collins, A brief introduction to hydrocode modeling of impact cratering, in Submarine Craters and Ejecta-Crater Correlation, ed. by P. Claeys, D. Henning (Springer, New York, 2003), pp. 323-340
176. R. Pierrehumbert, E. Gaidos, Hydrogen greenhouse planets beyond the habitable zone. Astrophys. J. 734, L13 (2011)
177. J.B. Pollack, J.F. Kasting, S.M. Richardson, K. Poliakoff, The case for a wet, warm climate on early Mars. Icarus 71, 203-224 (1987)
178. Y. Quesnel, C. Sotin, B. Langlais, S. Costin, M. Mandea, M. Gottschalk, J. Dyment, Serpentinization of the martian crust during Noachian. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 277, 184-193 (2009)
179. R.R. Rafikov, Atmospheres of protoplanetary cores: critical mass for nucleated instability. Astrophys. J. 648, 666-682 (2006) (Pubitemid 44414243)
180. I. Ribas, E.F. Guinan, M. Güdel, M. Audard, Evolution of the solar activity over time and effects on planetary atmospheres. I. High-energy irradiances (1-1700 Å). Astrophys. J. 622, 680-694 (2005) (Pubitemid 40669448)
181. T.L. Segura, O.B. Toon, A. Colaprete, K. Zahnle, Environmental effects of large impacts on Mars. Science 298, 1977-1980 (2002) (Pubitemid 35425250)
182. R. Shaheen, A. Abramian, J. Horn, G. Dominguez, R. Sullivan, M.H. Thiemens, Detection of oxygen isotopic anomaly in terrestrial atmospheric carbonates and its implications to Mars. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 107, 20213-20218 (2010)
183. C.K. Shearer, G. McKay, J.J. Papike, J.M. Karner, Valence state partitioning of vanadium between olivine liquid: estimates of the oxygen fugacity of Y980459 and application to other olivine phyric Martian basalts. Am. Mineral. 91, 1657-1663 (2006) (Pubitemid 44945561)
184. V.V. Shuvalov, N.A. Artemieva, Atmospheric erosion and radiation impulse induced by impacts, in Proc. International Conference on Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions: Impacts and Beyond (2001), abs. 3060
185. A. Skumanich, J.A. Eddy, Aspects of long-term variability in Sun and stars, in Solar Phenomena in Stars and Stellar Systems (Reidel, Dordrecht, 1981), pp. 349-397
186. D.E. Smith, M.T. Zuber, H.V. Frey, J.B. Garvin, J.W. Head, D.O. Muhleman, G.H. Pettengill, R.J. Phillips, S.C. Solomon, H.J. Zwally, W.B. Banerdt, T.C. Duxbury, M.P. Golombek, F.G. Lemoine, G.A. Neumann, D.D. Rowlands, O. Aharonson, P.G. Ford, A.B. Ivanov, C.L. Johnson, P.J. McGovern, J.B. Abshire, R.S. Afzal, X. Sun, Mars orbiter laser altimeter: experiment summary after the first year of global mapping of Mars. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 23689-23722 (2001)
187. S.W. Squyres, A.H. Knoll, Sedimentary rocks at MeridianiPlanum: origin, diagenesis, and implications for life on Mars. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 240, 1-10 (2005) (Pubitemid 41662769)
188. 2 solubility in Martian basalts and Martian atmospheric evolution. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 75, 5987-6003 (2011)
189. V.V. Svetsov, Atmospheric erosion and replenishment induced by impacts of cosmic bodies upon the Earth and Mars. Sol. Syst. Res. 41, 28-41 (2007)
190. N. Terada, Yu.N. Kulikov, H. Lammer, H.I.M. Lichtenegger, T. Tanaka, H. Shinagawa, T.-L. Zhang, Atmosphere and water loss form early Mars under extreme solar wind and extreme ultraviolet conditions. Astrobiology 9, 55-70 (2009)
191. F. Tian, O.B. Toon, A.A. Pavlov, H. De Sterck, A hydrogen-rich early Earth atmosphere. Science 308, 1014-1017 (2005) (Pubitemid 40664410)
192. F. Tian, J.F. Kasting, H. Liu, R.G. Roble, Hydrodynamic planetary thermosphere model: 1. The response of the Earth's thermosphere to extreme solar EUV conditions and the significance of adiabatic cooling. J. Geophys. Res. 113(E5), E05008 (2008)
193. F. Tian, J.F. Kasting, S.C. Solomon, Thermal escape of carbon from the early Martian atmosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36(2), L02205 (2009)
194. O.B. Toon, T. Segura, K. Zahnle, The formation of martian river valleys by impacts. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 38, 303-322 (2010)
195. G. Turner, S.F. Knott, R.D. Ash, J.D. Gilmour, Ar-Ar chronology of the Martian meteorite ALH 84001: evidence for the timing of the early bombardment of mars. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 61, 3835-3850 (1997)
196. A. Valeille, M.R. Combi, V. Tenishev, S.W. Bougher, A.F. Nagy, A study of suprathermal oxygen atoms in Mars upper thermosphere and exosphere over the range of limiting conditions. Icarus 206, 18-27 (2010)
197. A.M. Vickery, Impacts and atmospheric erosion on the early Earth, in Proc. International Workshop on Meteorite Impact on the Early Earth (1990), pp. 51-52
198. M. Wadhwa, Redox state of Mars: upper mantle and crust from Eu anomalies in shergottite pyroxenes. Science 291, 1527-1530 (2001) (Pubitemid 32179215)
199. K.J. Walsh, A. Morbidelli, S.N. Raymond, D.P. O'Brien, A.M. Mandell, A low mass for Mars from Jupiter's early gas-driven migration. Nature 475, 206-209 (2011)
200. H. Wänke, G. Dreibus, Chemistry and accretion history of Mars. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 349, 285-293 (1994)
201. P.H. Warren, G.W. Kallmeyen, Siderophile trace elements in ALH84001, other SNC meteorites and eucrites: evidence of heterogeneity, possibly time-linked, in the mantle of Mars. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 31, 97-105 (1996)
202. A.J. Watson, T.M. Donahue, J.C.G. Walker, The dynamics of a rapidly escaping atmosphere: applications to the evolution of Earth and Venus. Icarus 48, 150-166 (1981)
203. L.L. Watson, I.D. Hutcheon, S. Epstein, E.M. Stolper, Water on Mars: clues from deuterium/hydrogen and water contents of hydrous phases in SNC meteorites. Science 265, 86-90 (1994)
204. T.R. Watters, B. Campbell, L. Carter, C.J. Leuschen, J.J. Plaut, G. Picardi, R. Orosei, A. Safaeinili, S.M. Clifford, W.M. Farrell, M. William, A.B. Ivanov, R.J. Phillips, E.R. Stofan, Radar sounding of the Medusae Fossae formation Mars: equatorial ice or dry, low-density deposits? Science 318, 1125-1128 (2007) (Pubitemid 350134892)
205. G.W. Wetherill, Accumulation of terrestrial planets and implications concerning lunar origin, in Origin of the Moon, ed. by W.K. Hartmann, R.J. Phillips, G.J. Taylor (Arizona Press, Tucson, 1986), pp. 519-550
206. R.S. Wolff, B.E. Goldstein, C.M. Yeates, The onset and development of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability at the Venus ionopause. J. Geophys. Res. 85, 7697-7707 (1980)
207. R. Wordsworth, Transient conditions for biogenesis on low-mass exoplanets with escaping hydrogen atmospheres. Icarus 219, 267-273 (2012)
208. Y.L. Yung, J.S. Wen, J.P. Pinto, M. Allen, K.K. Pierce, S. Paulson, HDO in the Martian atmosphere: implications for the abundance of crustal water. Icarus 76, 146-159 (1988)
209. K.J. Zahnle, Xenological constraints on the impact erosion of the early Martian atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 98, 10899-10913 (1993)
210. K.J. Zahnle, J.F. Kasting, Mass fractionation during transonic escape and implications for loss of water from Mars and Venus. Icarus 68, 462-480 (1986)
211. K.J. Zahnle, J.C.G. Walker, The evolution of solar ultraviolet luminosity. Rev. Geophys. 20, 280-292 (1982)
212. K.J. Zahnle, J.F. Kasting, J.B. Pollack, Evolution of a steam atmosphere during Earth's accreation. Icarus 74, 62-97 (1988)
213. K.J. Zahnle, J.B. Pollack, D. Grinspoon, Impact-generated atmospheres over Titan, Ganymede and Callisto. Icarus 95, 1-23 (1992)
214. K.J. Zahnle, R.M. Haberle, D.C. Catling, J.F. Kasting, Photochemical instability of the ancient Martian atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 113(E11), E11004 (2008)
215. K.J. Zahnle, R.S. Freedman, D.C. Catling, Is there methane on Mars? Icarus 212, 493-503 (2011)
216. 2O under Mars-like conditions and application to the evolution of the martian climate. J. Geophys. Res. 100, 5341-5349 (1995)