The scientific basis for a satellite mission to retrieve CCN concentrations and their impacts on convective clouds

Atmospheric Measurement Techniques

Volumn 5, Issue 8, 2012, Pages 2039-2055

  Rosenfeld, D ^a   Williams, E ^b   Andreae, M O ^c   Freud, E ^a   Poschl U ^c   Renno N O ^d  

^a HEBREW UNIVERSITY OF JERUSALEM   (Israel)

^b MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

^c MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR CHEMISTRY   (Germany)

^d UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECT; BOUNDARY LAYER; CLOUD CONDENSATION NUCLEUS; CLOUD RADIATIVE FORCING; CONCENTRATION (COMPOSITION); CONVECTIVE CLOUD; METEOROLOGY; SATELLITE MISSION; VOLCANIC CLOUD;

EID: 84867944556     PISSN: 18671381     EISSN: 18678548     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/amt-5-2039-2012     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. Albert P., Bennartz, R., and Fischer, J.: Remote Sensing of Atmospheric Water Vapor from Backscattered Sunlight in cloudy Atmospheres, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 18, 865-874, 2001. (Pubitemid 32693152)
2. Albrecht, B. A.: Aerosols, cloud microphysics and fractional cloudiness, Science, 245, 1227-1230, 1989. (Pubitemid 20402204)
3. Andreae, M. O., Rosenfeld, D., Artaxo P., Costa, A. A., Frank, G. P., Longo, K. M., and Silva-Dias, M. A. F.: Smoking rain clouds over the Amazon, Science, 303, 1337-1342, 2004. (Pubitemid 38269420)
4. Andreae, M. O., Jones, C. D., and Cox, P. M.: Strong present-day aerosol cooling implies a hot future, Nature, 435, 1187-1190, 2005. (Pubitemid 40943077)
5. Andreae, M. O.: Correlation between cloud condensation nuclei concentration and aerosol optical thickness in remote and polluted regions, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 543-556, doi:10.5194/acp-9-543-2009, 2009.
6. Bell, T. L., Rosenfeld, D., Kim, K.-M., Yoo, J. M., Lee, M. I., and Hahnenberger, M.: Midweek increase in U.S. summer rain and storm heights suggests air pollution invigorates rainstorms, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D02209, doi:10.1029/2007JD008623, 2008.
7. Bell, T. L, Rosenfeld, D., and Kim, K.-M.: Weekly cycle in lightning: Evidence of storm invigoration by pollution, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L23805, doi:10.1029/2009GL040915, 2009.
8. Bennartz, R.: Global assessment of marine boundary layer cloud droplet umber concentration from satellite, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D02201, doi:10.1029/2006JD007547, 2007. (Pubitemid 47260876)
9. Blyth, A. M., Lasher-Trapp, S. G., and Cooper, W. A.: A study of thermals in cumulus clouds, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 131, 1171-1190, doi:10.1256/qj.03.180, 2005. (Pubitemid 41568819)
10. Brenguier, J. L., Pawlowska, H., Schuller, L., Preusker, R., Fischer, J., and Fouquart, Y.: Radiative properties of boundary layer clouds: Droplet effective radius versus number concentration, J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 803-821, 2000. (Pubitemid 30258160)
11. Burnet, F. and Brenguier, J. L.: Observational study of the entrainment-mixing process in warm convective clouds, J. At-mos. Sci., 64, 1995-2011, 2007. (Pubitemid 47023809)
12. Chen, T. C., Xue, L., Lebo, Z. J., Wang, H., Rasmussen, R. M., and Seinfeld, J. H.: A comprehensive numerical study of aerosol-cloud-precipitation interactions in marine stratocumulus. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 9749-9769, doi:10.5194/acp-11-9749-2011, 2011.
13. Christian, H. J., Blakeslee, R. J., Boccippio, D. J., Boeck, W. L., Buechler, D. E., Driscoll, K. T., Goodman, S. J., Hall, J. M. Koshak, W. J., Mach, D. M., and Stewart, M. F.: Global frequency and distribution of lightning as observed from space by the Optical Transient Detector, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4005, doi:10.1029/2002JD002347, 2003.
14. Fan J., Yuan, T., Comstock, J. M., Ghan, S., Khain, A., Leung, R. L., Li, Z., Martins, V. J., and Ovchinnikov, M.: Dominant role by vertical wind shear in regulating aerosol effects on deep convective clouds, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D22206, doi:10.1029/2009JD012352, 2009.
15. Fan, J., Rosenfeld, D., Ding, Y., Leung, L. R., and Li, Z.: Potential aerosol indirect effects on atmospheric circulation and radiative forcing through deep convection. Geophys. Res. Lett., in press, doi:10.1029/ 2012GL051851, 2012.
16. Feingold, G., Yang, S., Hardesty, R. M., and Cotton, W. R.: Retrieving cloud condensation nucleus properties from Doppler cloud radar, microwave radiometer, and lidar, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 15, 1189-1196, 1998.
17. Freud, E., Rosenfeld, D., Andreae, M. O., Costa, A. A., and Ar-taxo, P.: Robust relations between CCN and the vertical evolution of cloud drop size distribution in deep convective clouds, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 8, 1661-1675, doi:10.5194/acp-8-1661-2008, 2008.
18. Freud E., Rosenfeld, D., and Kulkarni, J. R.: Resolving both entrainment-mixing and number of activated CCN in deep convective clouds. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 12887-12900, doi:10.5194/acp-11-12887-2011, 2011.
19. Freud E. and Rosenfeld, D.: Linear relation between convective cloud drop number concentration and depth for rain initiation, J. Geophys. Res., 117, D02207, doi:10.1029/2011JD016457, 2012.
20. Gerber, H.: Microphysics of marine stratocumulus clouds with two drizzle modes, J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 1649-1662, 1996.
21. Goren, T. and Rosenfeld, D.: Observations of ship emission fully clouding broken marine stratocumulus over large areas, J. Geo-phys. Res., in review, 2012.
22. Gunn, R. and Phillips, B. B.: An experimental investigation of the effect of air pollution on the initiation of rain, J. Meteorol., 14, 272-280, 1957.
23. Gunthe, S. S., King, S. M., Rose, D., Chen, Q., Roldin, P., Farmer, D. K., Jimenez, J. L., Artaxo, P., Andreae, M. O., Martin, S. T., and Pöschl, U.: Cloud condensation nuclei in pristine tropical rainforest air of Amazonia: size-resolved measurements and modeling of atmospheric aerosol composition and CCN activity, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 7551-7575, doi:10.5194/acp-9-7551-2009, 2009.
24. Hamid, E. F, Kawasaki, Z. I., and Mardiana, R.: Impact of the 1997-98 El Nino event on lightning activity over Indonesia, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 147-150, 2001.
25. Hicks, E., Pontikis, C. A., Nathou, N., and Asselin de Beauville, C.: Thunderstorms in the vicinity of the island of Guadeloupe as related to land-ocean contrast in lightning activity, Chapter 8 in Recent Progress in Lightning Physics, edited by: Pontikis, C., Research Signpost, Trivandrum, India, 2005.
26. Hogan, A.: Meteorological variation of maritime aerosols, in Atmospheric Aerosols and Nuclei, edited by: Roddy, A. F. and O'Connor, P. C., 503-507, Galway University Press, Ireland, 1977.
27. Horváth A. and Davies, R.: Feasibility and error analysis of cloud motion wind extraction from near-simultaneous multian-gle MISR measurements, J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol., 18, 591-608, 2001. (Pubitemid 32511899)
28. IPCC: Climate Change 2007-The scientific basis. Contribution of working group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
29. Jiang, H., Feingold, G., and Koren, I.:Effect of aerosol on trade cumulus cloud morphology. J. Geophys. Res., 114, D11209, doi:10.1029/2009JD011750, 2009.
30. Jorgenson, D. P. and LeMone, M. A.: Vertical velocity characteristics of oceanic convection, J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 621-640, 1989.
31. Kent, G. S., Williams, E. R., Wang, P. H., McCormick, M. P., and Skeens, K. M.: Surface temperature-related variations in tropical cirrus clouds as measured by SAGE II, J. Climate, 8, 2577-2594, 1995. (Pubitemid 27002276)
32. Kiehl, J. T.: Twentieth century climate model response and climate sensitivity, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L22710, doi:10.1029/2007GL031383, 2007. (Pubitemid 351222826)
33. Koren, I., Remer, L. A., Kaufman, Y. J., Rudich, Y., and Martins, J. V.: On the twilight zone between clouds and aerosols, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L08805, doi:10.1029/2007GL029253, 2007. (Pubitemid 46958287)
34. Koren, I., Remer, L. A., Altaratz, O., Martins, J. V., and Davidi, A.: Aerosol-induced changes of convective cloud anvils produce strong climate warming, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 5001-5010, doi:10.5194/acp-10-5001-2010, 2010.
35. Kreidenweis, S. M., Petters, M. D., and Chuang, P. Y.: Cloud particle precursors, in: Clouds in the perturbed climate system-their relationship to energy balance, atmospheric dynamics, and precipitation, edited by: Heintzenberg, J. and Charlson, R. J., MIT Press, Cambridge, 291-317, 2009.
36. Lebsock, M. D., Stephens, G. L., and Kummerow, C.: Multisensor satellite observations of aerosol effects on warm clouds, J. Geo-phys. Res., 113, D15205, doi:10.1029/2008JD009876, 2008.
37. Lehmann, K., Siebert, H., and Shaw, R. A.: Homogeneous and In-homogeneous Mixing in Cumulus Clouds: Dependence on Local Turbulence Structure, J. Atmos. Sci., 66, 3641-3659, 2009.
38. Li, Z., Niu, F., Fan, J., Liu, Y., Rosenfeld, D., and Ding, Y.: Long-term impacts of aerosols on the vertical development of clouds and precipitation, Nature Geosci., doi:10.1038/ngeo1313, 2011.
39. Liu, C. and Zipser, E. J.: "Warm Rain" in the Tropics: Seasonal and regional distributions based on 9 years of TRMM data, J. Climate, 22, 767-779, 2009.
40. Martins, J. V., Marshak, A., Remer, L. A., Rosenfeld, D., Kaufman, Y. J., Fernandez-Borda, R., Koren, I., Correia, A. L., Zubko, V., and Artaxo, P.: Remote sensing the vertical profile of cloud droplet effective radius, thermodynamic phase, and temperature, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 9485-9501, doi:10.5194/acp-11-9485-2011, 2011.
41. Mitchel D. L.: Effective Diameter in Radiation Transfer: General Definition, Applications, and Limitations, J. Atmos. Scie., 59, 2330-2346, 2002.
42. Molinié, J. and Pontikis, C.: A climatological study of tropical thunderstorm clouds and lightning frequencies on the French Guyana Coast, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 1085-1088, 1995.
43. Moroney C., Davies, R., and Muller, J.-P.: Operational retrieval of cloudtop heights using MISR data, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., 40, 1532-1540, 2002. (Pubitemid 35000351)
44. Painemal, D. and Zuidema, P.: Assessment of MODIS cloud effective radius and optical thickness retrievals over the Southeast Pacific with VOCALS-Rex in-situ measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D24206, doi:10.1029/2011JD016155, 2011.
45. Paluch, I. R.: The entrainment mechanism in Colorado cumuli, J. Atmos. Sci., 36, 2467-2478, 1979.
46. Pawlowska, H., Brenguier, J. L., and Burnet, F.: Microphysical properties of stratocumulus clouds, Atmos. Res., 55, 15-33, 2000.
47. Penner, J. E., Xu, L., and Wang, M.: Satellite methods underestimate indirect climate forcing by aerosols, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 108, 13404-13408, doi:10.1073/pnas.1018526108, 2011.
48. Petters, M. D. and Kreidenweis, S. M.: A single parameter representation of hygroscopic growth and cloud condensation nucleus activity, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 1961-1971, doi:10.5194/acp-7-1961-2007, 2007. (Pubitemid 46632024)
49. Pinsky, M., and Khain, A. P.: Effects of in-cloud nucleation and turbulence on droplet spectrum formation in cumulus clouds, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 128, 501-533, 2002.
50. Pöschl, U., Martin, S. T., Sinha, B., Chen, Q., Gunthe S. S., Huffman, J. A., Borrmann, S, Farmer, D. K., Garland, R. M., Helas, G., Jimenez, J. L., King, S. M., Manzi, A, Mikhailov, E., Pauliquevis, T., Petters, M. D., Prenni, A. J., Roldin, P., Rose, D., Schneider, J., Su, H., Zorn, S. R., Artaxo, P., and Andreae M. O.: Rainforest Aerosols as Biogenic Nuclei of Clouds and Precipita-tion in the Amazon, Science, 329, 1513-1516, 2010.
51. Pöschl, U., Rose, D., and Andreae M. O.: Climatologies of cloudrelated aerosols-Part 2: Particle hygroscopicity and cloud condensation nucleus activity, in: Clouds in the perturbed climate system-Their relationship to energy balance, atmospheric dynamics, and precipitation, edited by: Heintzenberg, J. and Charl-son, R. J., MIT Press, Cambridge, 58-72, 2009.
52. Pringle, K. J., Tost, H., Pozzer, A., Pöschl, U., and Lelieveld, J.: Global distribution of the effective aerosol hygroscopicity parameter for CCN activation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 5241-5255, doi:10.5194/acp-10-5241-2010, 2010.
53. Quaas, J., Ming, Y., Menon, S., Takemura, T., Wang, M., Penner, J. E., Gettelman, A., Lohmann, U., Bellouin, N., Boucher, O., Sayer, A. M., Thomas, G. E., McComiskey, A., Feingold, G., Hoose, C., Kristj'ansson, J. E., Liu, X., Balkanski, Y., Donner, L. J., Ginoux, P. A., Stier, P., Grandey, B., Feichter, J., Sednev, I., Bauer, S. E., Koch, D., Grainger, R. G., Kirkeva?g, A., Iversen, T., Seland, Ø., Easter, R., Ghan, S. J., Rasch, P. J., Morrison, H., Lamarque, J.-F., Iacono, M. J., Kinne, S., and Schulz, M.: Aerosol indirect effects-general circulation model intercom-parison and evaluation with satellite data, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 8697-8717, doi:10.5194/acp-9-8697-2009, 2009.
54. Renno, N. O., Williams, E., Rosenfeld, D., Fisher, D. G., Fischer, J., Kremic, T., Agrawal A., Andreae, M. O., Bierbaum, R., Blakeslee, R., Boerner, A., Bowles, N., Christian, H., Dunion, J., Horvath, A., Huang, X., Khain, A., Kinne, S., Lemos, M. C., Penner, J., Pöschl, U., Quaas, J., Seran, E., Stevens B., and Wagner T.: CHASER: An Innovative Mission Concept to Measure the Effects of Aerosols on Clouds and Climate. B. Am. Meteor. Soc., in review, 2012.
55. Reutter, P., Su, H., Trentmann, J., Simmel, M., Rose, D., Gunthe, S. S., Wernli, H., Andreae, M. O., and Pöschl, U.: Aerosol-and updraft-limited regimes of cloud droplet formation: influence of particle number, size and hygroscopicity on the activation of cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 7067-7080, doi:10.5194/acp-9-7067-2009, 2009.
56. Rose, D., Nowak, A., Achtert, P., Wiedensohler, A., Hu, M., Shao, M., Zhang, Y., Andreae M. O., and Pöschl, U.: Cloud condensation nuclei in polluted air and biomass burning smoke near the mega-city Guangzhou, China-Part 1: Size-resolved measurements and implications for the modeling of aerosol particle hy-groscopicity and CCN activity, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 3365-3383, doi:10.5194/acp-10-3365-2010, 2010.
57. Rose, D., Gunthe, S. S., Su, H., Garland, R. M., Yang, H., Berghof, M., Cheng, Y. F., Wehner B., Achtert, P., Nowak, A., Wieden-sohler A., Takegawa, N., Kondo, Y., Hu, M., Zhang, Y, Andreae, M. O. and Pöschl, U.: Cloud condensation nuclei in polluted air and biomass burning smoke near the mega-city Guangzhou, China-Part 2: Size-resolved aerosol chemical composition, diurnal cycles, and externally mixed weakly CCN-active soot particles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 2817-2836, doi:10.5194/acp-11-2817-2011, 2011
58. Rosenfeld, D.: TRMM observed rst direct evidence of smoke from forest fires inhibiting rainfall, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 3105-3108, 1999. (Pubitemid 30059623)
59. Rosenfeld, D.: Suppression of rain and snow by urban and industrial air pollution, Science, 287, 1793-1796, 2000. (Pubitemid 30143959)
60. Rosenfeld, D. and Bell, T. L.: Why do tornados and hailstorms rest on weekends?, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D20211, doi:10.1029/2011JD016214, 2011.
61. Rosenfeld, D. and Gutman, G.: Retrieving microphysical properties near the tops of potential rain clouds by multispectral analysis of AVHRR data, Atmos. Res., 34, 259-283, 1994.
62. Rosenfeld, D. and Lensky, I. M. : Satellite-based insights into precipitation formation processes in continental and maritime con-vective clouds, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 79, 2457-2476, 1998.
63. Rosenfeld, D. and Woodley, W. L.: Closing the 50-year circle: From cloud seeding to space and back to climate change through precipitation physics. Chap. 6, Cloud Systems, Hurricanes, and the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), edited by: Tao, W.-K. and Adler, R., Meteorol. Monogr., 51, 59-80, 2003.
64. Rosenfeld, D., Cattani, E., Melani, S., and Levizzani, V.: Considerations on daylight operation of 1.6μ m vs 3.7μ m channel on NOAA and METOP Satellites, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 85, 873-881, 2004.
65. Rosenfeld, D., Kaufman, Y. J., and Koren, I.: Switching cloud cover and dynamical regimes from open to closed Benard cells in response to the suppression of precipitation by aerosols, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2503-2511, doi:10.5194/acp-6-2503-2006, 2006. (Pubitemid 43980751)
66. Rosenfeld, D., Lohmann, U., Raga, G. B., O'Dowd, C. D., Kul-mala, M., Fuzzi, S., Reissell, A., and Andreae, M.O.: Flood or Drought: How Do Aerosols Affect Precipitation? Science, 321, 1309-1313, 2008a.
67. Rosenfeld, D., Woodley, W. L., Axisa, D., Freud, E., Hudson, J. G., Givati, A.: Aircraft measurements of the impacts of pollution aerosols on clouds and precipitation over the Sierra Nevada. J. Geophys. Res., 113, D15203, doi:10.1029/2007JD009544, 2008b.
68. Rosenfeld D., Donner, L. J., Wood, R., and Sherwood, S. C.: Uncertainties in aerosol cloud-mediated radiative forcing: two large and highly uncertain opposite effects from shallow and deep clouds. Position paper in the WCRP book on climate change, in review, Springer, available at: http://conference2011. wcrp-climate.org/documents/Rosenfeld cloud aerosol V9.pdf, 2012a.
69. Rosenfeld, D., Woodley, W. L., Khain, A., Cotton, W. R., Carrió, G., Ginis, I., and Golden, J. H.: Aerosol effects on Intensity of Tropical Cyclones, B. Am. Meteor. Soc., 987-1001, 2012b.
70. Rosenfeld D., Wang H., and Rasch, P. J.: The roles of cloud drop effective radius and LWP in determining rain properties in marine stratocumulus, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L13801, 6 pp., doi:10.1029/2012GL052028, 2012c.
71. Sanchez-Lorenzo, A., Laux, P., Hendricks Franssen, H.-J., Calbó, J., Vogl, S., Georgoulias, A. K., and Quaas, J.: Assessing large-scale weekly cycles in meteorological variables: a review, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 12, 5755-5771, doi:10.5194/acp-12-5755-2012, 2012.
72. Satori, G., Williams E., and Lemperger, I.: Variability of global lightning activity, Atmos. Res., 91, 500-507, 2009.
73. Schaefer, V. J. and Day, J. A.: A Field Guide to the Atmosphere, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Mass., USA, 359 pp., 1981.
74. Schuller, L., Brenguier, J., and Pawlowska, H.: Retrieval of micro-physical, geometrical, and radiative properties of marine stra-tocumulus from remote sensing, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8631, doi:10.1029/2002JD002680, 2003.
75. Singh, D. and Bhatia, R. C.: Study of temperature and moisture profiles retrieved from microwave and hyperspectral infrared sounder data over Indian regions, Ind. J. Rad. Space Phys., 35, 286-292, 2006.
76. Snider, J. R., Leon, D., and Wang, Z.: Cloud droplet number concentration in VOCALS-REx, in: 13th Conference on Cloud Physics, Am. Meteorol. Soc., Portland, OR, USA, 2010.
77. Spracklen, D. V., Pringle, K. J., Carslaw, K. S., Chipperfield, M. P., and Mann, G. W.: A global off-line model of size-resolved aerosol microphysics: II. Identification of key uncertainties, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 5, 3233-3250, doi:10.5194/acp-5-3233-2005, 2005a. (Pubitemid 43102179)
78. Spracklen, D. V., Pringle, K. J., Carslaw, K. S., Chipperfield, M. P., and Mann, G. W.: A global off-line model of size-resolved aerosol microphysics: I. Model development and prediction of aerosol properties, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 2227-2252, doi:10.5194/acp-5-2227-2005, 2005b. (Pubitemid 41520101)
79. Spracklen, D. V., Carslaw, K. S., Pöschl, U., Rap, A., and Forster, P. M.: Global cloud condensation nuclei influenced by carbonaceous combustion aerosol, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 9067-9087, doi:10.5194/acp-11-9067-2011, 2011.
80. Squires, P.: The microstructure and colloidal stability of warm clouds-1: The relation between structure and stability, Tellus, 10, 256-261, 1958.
81. Su, H., Rose, D., Cheng, Y. F., Gunthe, S. S., Massling, A., Stock, M., Wiedensohler, A., Andreae, M. O., and Pöschl, U.: Hygro-scopicity distribution concept for measurement data analysis and modeling of aerosol particle mixing state with regard to hygroscopic growth and CCN activation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 7489-7503, doi:10.5194/acp-10-7489-2010, 2010.
82. Twomey, S.: The influence of pollution on the short wave albedo of clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 34, 1149-1152, 1977.
83. Wang, H., Rasch, P. J., and Feingold, G.: Manipulating marine stratocumulus cloud amount and albedo: a process-modelling study of aerosol-cloud-precipitation interactions in response to injection of cloud condensation nuclei, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 4237-4249, doi:10.5194/acp-11-4237- 2011, 2011.
84. Williams, E. R.: The Schumann resonance: A global tropical thermometer, Science, 256, 1184-1187, 1992.
85. Williams, E. R.: Global circuit response to seasonal variations in global surface air temperature, Mon. Weather Rev., 122, 1917-1929, 1994.
86. Williams, E. R. and Renno, N. O.: An analysis of the conditional instability of the tropical atmosphere, Mon. Weather Rev., 121, 21-36, 1993.
87. Williams, E. R. and Stanfill, S.: The physical origin of the land-ocean contrast in lightning activity, Compt. Rend.-Phys., 3, 1277-1292, 2002. (Pubitemid 36646091)
88. Williams, E. R, Rosenfeld, D., Madden, M., Gerlach, J., Gears, N., Atkinson, L., Dunnemann, N., Frostrom, G., Antonio, M., Biazon, B., Camargo, R., Franca, H., Gomes, A., Lima, M., Machado, R., Manhaes, S., Nachtigall, L., Piva, H., Quintil-iano, W., Machado, L., Artaxo, P., Roberts, G., Renno, N., Blakeslee, R., Bailey, J., Boccippio, D., Betts, A., Wolff, D., Roy, B., Halverson, J., Rickenbach, T., Fuentes, J., and Avelino, E.: Contrasting convective regimes over the Amazon: Implications for cloud electrification. J. Geophys. Res., 107, 8082, doi:10.1029/2001JD000380, 2002.
89. Williams, E. R., Chan, T., and Boccippio, D.: Islands as miniature continents: Another look at the land-ocean lightning contrast. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D16206, doi:10.1029/2003JD003833, 2004. (Pubitemid 39428410)
90. Williams, E. R. and Sátori, G.: Lightning, thermodynamic and hy-drological comparison of the two tropical continental chimneys. J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 66, 1213-1231, 2004. (Pubitemid 39026941)
91. Williams, E. R., Mushtak, V. C., Rosenfeld, D., Goodman, S. J., and Boccippio, D. J.: Thermodynamic conditions favorable to superlative thunderstorm updraft, mixed phase micro-physics and lightning flash rate, Atmos. Res., 76, 288-306, doi:10.1029/2001JD000380, 2005. (Pubitemid 41086572)
92. Wood, R.: Cancellation of aerosol indirect effects in marine stra-tocumulus through cloud thinning, J. Atmos. Sci., 64, 2657-2669, 2007. (Pubitemid 47233157)
93. Yuan, T., Remer, L. A., Pickering, K. E., and Yu, H.: Observational evidence of aerosol enhancement of lightning activity and convective invigoration, Geophys. Res. Lett., 38, L04701, doi:10.1029/2010GL046052, 2011.
94. Zinner, T., Marshak, A., Lang, S., Martins, J. V., and Mayer, B.: Remote sensing of cloud sides of deep convection: towards a three-dimensional retrieval of cloud particle size profiles, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 8, 4741-4757, doi:10.5194/acp-8-4741-2008, 2008.