The burden and management of dyslipidemia: Practical issues

Population Health Management

Volumn 15, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 302-308

  Schultz, Alyssa B ^a   Chen, Chin Yu ^a   Burton, Wayne N ^b   Edington, Dee W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BILE ACID SEQUESTRANT; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL;

AGE; ARTICLE; BEHAVIOR CHANGE; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; COMORBIDITY; DEPRESSION; DIET; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; DYSLIPIDEMIA; EATING HABIT; ELECTRONIC MEDICAL RECORD; EMPLOYER; EXERCISE; HEALTH CARE COST; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HEALTH CARE QUALITY; HEALTH CARE SYSTEM; HEALTH PRACTITIONER; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; KNOWLEDGE; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; MEDICAL EDUCATION; MEDICAL INFORMATION; MEDICAL SERVICE; MONOTHERAPY; NURSE; PATIENT ATTITUDE; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PATIENT EDUCATION; PATIENT INFORMATION; PATIENT SATISFACTION; PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT; PHARMACIST; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PHYSICIAN; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRESCRIPTION; SEX DIFFERENCE; UNITED STATES;

COMMUNICATION; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; DYSLIPIDEMIAS; HEALTH CARE COSTS; HEALTH EXPENDITURES; HEALTH KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES, PRACTICE; HUMANS; HYPOLIPIDEMIC AGENTS; LIFE STYLE; MEDICATION ADHERENCE; PATIENT CARE; PATIENT EDUCATION AS TOPIC; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84866341563     PISSN: 19427891     EISSN: 19427905     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1089/pop.2011.0081     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. American Heart Association. Why cholesterol matters. Available at: http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/ Conditions/Cholesterol/WhyCholesterolMatters/Why- Cholesterol-Matters-UCM-001212-Article.jsp. Accessed October 2011.
2. National Institutes of Health. Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP). Expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation. 2002;106:3143-3421.
3. Smith DG. Epidemiology of dyslipidemia and economic burden on the healthcare system. Am J Manag Care 2007; 13:S68-71.
4. Roger VL, Go AS, Lloyd-Jones DM, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics - 2011 update: A report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2011;123:e18-e209.
5. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Bairey Merz CN, et al. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III Guidelines. Circulation 2004;110:227-239.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. State-specific cholesterol screening trends-United States, 1991-1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2000;49:750-755.
7. National Committee for Quality Assurance. The state of healthcare quality 2011. Available at: http://www.ncqa .org/tabid/836/Default.aspx. Accessed October 2011.
8. Eddy DM, Pawlson G, Schaaf D, et al. The potential effects of HEDIS performance measures on the quality of care. Health Affairs (Millwood) 2008;27:1429-1441.
9. Hu FB, Willett WC. Optimal diets for prevention of coronary heart disease. JAMA 2002;288:2569-2578.
10. Frantz ID Jr, Dawson EA, Ashman PL, et al. Test of effect of lipid lowering by diet on cardiovascular risk: The Minnesota Coronary Survey. Arteriosclerosis1989;9:129-135.
11. Nissen SE, Tuzcu EM, Schoenhagen P, et al. Effect of intensive compared with moderate lipid-lowering therapy on progression of coronary atherosclerosis: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004;291:1071-1080.
12. Bazzano LA, He J, Odgden LG, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake and risk of cardiovascular disease in US adults: The first National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2002; 76:93-99.
13. Datillo AM, Kris-Etherton PM. Effects of weight reduction on blood lipids and lipoproteins: A meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 1992;56:320-328.
14. Tran ZV, Weltman A. Differential effects of exercise on serum lipid and lipoprotein levels seen with changes in body weight. JAMA 1985;254:919-924.
15. Stefanick ML, Mackey S, Sheehan M, Ellsworth N, Haskell WL, Wood PD. Effects of diet and exercise in men and postmenopausal women with low levels of HDL cholesterol and high levels of LDL cholesterol. N Engl J Med 1998;339:12-20.
16. Butowski PF, Winder AF. Usual care dietary practice, achievement and implications for medication in the management of hypercholesterolaemia. Data from the U.K. Lipid Clinics Programme. Eur Heart J 1998;19:1328-1333.
17. Leon AS, Bronas UG. Dyslipidemia and risk of coronary heart disease: Role of lifestyle approaches for its management. Am J Lifestyle Med 2009;3:257-273.
18. Pearson GJ, Thompson AE, Semchuk W. Guidelines for the management of dyslipidemia and prevention of cardiovascular disease by pharmacists. Can Pharm J 2008;141:S11-S16.
19. Prevention of coronary heart disease in clinical practice. Recommendations of the Second Joint Task Force of European and other Societies on coronary prevention. Eur Heart J 1998;19:1434-1503.
20. Mann DM, Allegrante JP, Natarajan S, Halm EA, Charlson M. Predictors of adherence to statins for primary prevention. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 2007;21:311-316.
21. Teramoto T, Sasaki J, Ueshima H, et al. Goals of dyslipidemia management. J Atheroscler Thromb 2007:14:209-212.
22. Cannon CP, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et al. Intensive and moderate lipid lowering with statins after acute coronary syndromes. N Eng J Med 2004;350:1495-1504.
23. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2002;360:7-22.
24. Law MR, Wald NJ, Rudnicka AR. Quantifying effect of statins on low density lipoprotein cholesterol, ischaemic heart disease, and stroke: Systematic review and metaanalysis. BMJ 2003;326:1423-1430.
25. Sever PS, Dublof B, Poulter NR, et al. Prevention of coronary and stroke events with atorvastatin in hypertensive patients who have average or lower-than-average cholesterol concentrations, in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial-Lipid Lowering Arm (ASCOT-LLA): A muticentre randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2003:361: 1149-1158.
26. Parris ES, Lawrence DB, Mohn LA, Long LB. Adherence to statin therapy and LDL cholesterol goal attainment by patients with diabetes and dyslipidemia. Diabetes Care 2005;28:595-599.
27. LaRosa JC, He J, Vupputuri S. Effect of statins on risk of coronary disease: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 1999;282:2340-2346.
28. Gould AL, Rossouw JE, Santanello NC, Heyse JF, Furberg CD. Cholesterol reduction yields clinical benefit: Impact of statin trials. Circulation 1998;97:946-952.
29. Goldberg KC, Melnyk SD, Simel DL. Overcoming inertia: Improvement in achieving target low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Am J Manag Care 2007;13:530-534.
30. McBride P, Schrott HG, Plane MB, Underbakke G, Brown RL. Primary care practice adherence to National Cholesterol Education Program guidelines for patients with coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:1238- 1244.
31. Pearson TA, Laurova I, Chu H, Kafonek S. The Lipid Treatment Assessment Project (L-TAP): A multicenter survey to evaluate the percentages of dyslipidemic patients receiving lipid-lowering therapy and achieving low-density lipoprotein in cholesterol goals. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160:459-467.
32. Sloan KI, Sales AE, Willems JP, et al. Frequency of serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol measurement and frequency of results <= 100 mg/dl among patients who had coronary events (Northwest VA Network Study). Am J Cardiol 2001;88:1143-1146.
33. Ford ES, Mokdad AH, Giles WH, Mensah GA. Serum total cholesterol concentrations and awareness, treatment, and control of hypercholesterolemia among US adults: Findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999-2000. Circulation 2003;107:2185-2189.
34. Olson KI, Tsuyuki RT. Patients' achievement of cholesterol targets: A cross-sectional evaluation. Am J Prev Med 2003;25:339-342.
35. Olson KI, Bungard TI, Tsuyuki RT. Cholesterol risk management: A systematic examination of the gap from evidence to practice. Pharmacotherapy 2001;21:807-817.
36. Baessler A, Fischer M, Huf V, et al. Failure to achieve recommended LDL cholesterol levels by suboptimal statin therapy relates to elevated cardiac event rates. Int J Cardiol 2005;101:293-298.
37. Frolkis JP, Pearce GL, Nambi V, Minor S, Sprecher DL. Statins do not meet expectations for lowering low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels when used in clinical practice. Am J Med 2002;113:625-629.
38. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Disparities in screening for and awareness of high blood cholesterol - United States, 1999-2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2005;54:117-119.
39. Nau DP, Mallya U. Sex disparity in the management of dyslipidemia among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in a managed care organization. Am J Manag Care 2005;11:69-73.
40. Kontos MC, Joyner SE, Roberts CS, et al. Implications of the new low-density lipoprotein goals in dyslipidemia management of patients with acute coronary syndrome. Mayo Clin Proc 2007:82:551-555.
41. Reiner Z. Combined therapy in the treatment of dyslipidemia. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2010;24:19-28.
42. Patel JV, Hughes EA. Efficacy, safety and LDL-C goal attainment of ezetimibe 10 mg-simvastatin 20mg vs. placebosimvastatin 20mg in UK-based adults with coronary heart disease and hypercholesterolaemia. Int J Clin Pract 2006: 60:914-921.
43. Davidson MH, McGarry T, Bettis R, et al. Ezetimibe coadministered with simvastatin in patients with primary hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002;40:2125- 2135.
44. Teoh H, Mendelsohn AA, Goodman SG, et al. Usefulness of statin-ezetimibe combination to reduce the care gap in dyslipidemia management in patients with a high risk for atherosclerotic disease. Am J Cardiol 2009;104:798-804.
45. Ballantyne CM, Weiss R, Moccetti T, et al. Efficacy and safety of rosuvastatin 40mg alone or in combination with ezetimibe in patients at high risk of cardiovascular disease (results from the EXPLORER study). Am J Cardiol 2007; 99:673-680.
46. Kerzner B, Corbelli J, Sharp S, et al. Efficacy and safety of ezetimibe coadministered with lovastatin in primary hypercholesterolemia. Am J Cardiol 2003;91:418-424.
47. Chao J. Improving medication adherence: The role of the health care delivery system and health care providers. J Manag Care Pharm 2007;13:807-809.
48. Sabate E. Adherence to long-term therapies: Evidence for action. Available at: http://www.who.int/chp/knowledge/ publications/adherence-report/ en/index.html. Accessed August 2009.
49. Berg JS, Dischler J, Wagner DJ, Raia JJ, Palmer-Shevlin N. Medication compliance: A healthcare problem. Ann Pharmacother 1993;27:1-24.
50. Avorn J, Monette J, Lacour A, et al. Persistence of use of lipid-lowering medications: A cross-national study. JAMA 1998;279:1458-1462.
51. Tsuyuki RT, Bungard TJ. Poor adherence with hypolipidemic drugs: A lost opportunity. Pharmacotherapy 2001;21:576-582.
52. Ye X, Gross Cr, Schommer J, Cline R, St Peter WL. Association between copayment and adherence to statin treatment initiated after coronary heart disease hospitalizations: A longitudinal, retrospective, cohort study. Clin Ther 2007; 29:2748-2757.
53. McGinnis B, Olson KL, Magid D, et al. Factors related to adherence to statin therapy. Ann Pharmacother 2007;41: 1805-1811.
54. Coombs JH, Cornish L, Hiller P, Smith DG. Compliance and refill pattern behavior with HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors after acute myocardial infarction. Manag Care Interface 2002;15:54-58, 60.
55. Batal HA, Krantz MJ, Dale RA, Mehler PS, Steiner JF. Impact of prescription size on statin adherence and cholesterol levels. BMC Health Serv Res 2007;7:175-180.
56. Gibson TB, Mark TL, Axelsen K, Baser O, Rublee DA, McGuigan KA. Impact of statin copayments on adherence and medical care utilization and expenditures. Am J Manag Care 2006;12 Spec no:SP11-SP19.
57. Huskamp HA, Deverka PA, Epstein AM, Epstein RS, McGuigan KA, Frank RG. The effect of incentive-based formularies on prescription-drug utilization and spending. N Engl J Med 2003;349:2224-2232.
58. Goldman DP, Joyce GF, Escarce JJ, et al. Pharmacy benefit and the use of drugs by the chronically ill. JAMA 2004; 291:2344-2350.
59. Pedan A, Varasteh L, Schneeweiss S. Analysis of factors associated with statin adherence in a hierarchical model considering physician, pharmacy, patient, and prescription characteristics. J Manag Care Pharm 2007;13:487-496.
60. Kessler RC, Cantrell CR, Berglund P, Sokol MC. The effects of copayments on medication adherence during the first two years of prescription drug treatment. J Occup Environ Med 2007;49:597-609.
61. Wei L, Macdonald TM, Watson AD, Murphy MJ. Effectiveness of two statin prescribing strategies with respect to adherence and cardiovascular outcomes: observational study. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Safety 2007;16:385-392.
62. McGinnis B, Olson KL, Magid D, et al. Factors related to adherence to statin therapy. Ann Pharmacother 2007; 47:1805-1811.
63. Bodenheimer T. Helping patients improve their healthrelated behaviors: What system changes do we need? Dis Manag 2005;8:319-330.
64. Ho PM, Bryson CL, Rumsfeld JS. Medication adherence: Its importance in cardiovascular outcomes. Circulation 2009;119:3028-3035.
65. Osterberg L, Blaschke T. Adherence to medication. N Engl J Med 2005;353:487-497.
66. Lee TH, Cleeman JI, Grundy SM. Clinical goals and performance measures for cholesterol management in secondary prevention of coronary heart disease. JAMA 2000;283:94-98.
67. Nair KV, Saseen JJ. Quality assessment of dyslipidemia in managed care: Current best evidence should be used to benchmark quality. Ann Pharmacother 2006;40:124-127.
68. Davidson MH. Differences between clinical trial efficacy and real-world effectiveness. Am J Manag Care 2006; 12:S405-S411.
69. Mosca L, Linfante AH, Benjamin EJ, et al. National study of physician awareness and adherence to cardiovascular disease prevention guidelines. Circulation 2005;111:499-510.
70. Rodondi N, Peng T, Karter AJ, et al. Therapy modifications in response to poorly controlled hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 2006;144:475- 484.
71. Pasternak RC, Smith SC, Bairey-Merz CN, Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Lenfant C. ACC/AHA/NHLBI clinical advisory on the use and safety of statins. Circulation 2002; 106:1024-1028.
72. Ellis JJ, Erickson SR, Stevenson JG. Suboptimal statin adherence and discontinuation in primary and secondary prevention populations: Should we target patients with the most to gain? J Gen Intern Med 2004;19:638-645.
73. Benner JS, Tierce JC, Ballantyne CM, et al. Follow-up lipid tests and physician visits are associated with improved adherence to statin therapy. Pharmacoeconomics 2004;22: 13-23.
74. Cutler TW, Palmieri J, Khalsa M, Stebbins M. Evaluation of the relationship between a chronic disease care management program and California pay-for-performance diabetes care cholesterol measures in one medical group. J Manag Care Pharm 2007;13:578-588.
75. Maviglia SM, Teich JM, Fiskio J, Bates DW. Using an electronic medical record to identify opportunities to improve compliance with cholesterol guidelines. J Gen Intern Med 2001;16:531-537.
76. Kinn JW, O'Toole MF, Rowley SM, Marek JC, Bufalino VJ, Brown AS. Effectiveness of the electronic medical record in cholesterol management in patients with coronary artery disease (Virtual Lipid Clinic). Am J Cardiol 2001;88:163-165.
77. Ginsberg HN, Kris-Etherton P, Dennis B, et al. Effects of reducing dietary saturated fatty acids on plasma lipids and lipoproteins in healthy subjects: The DELTA Study, protocol 1. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1998;18:441-449.
78. Schaefer EJ, Lichtenstein AH, Lamon-Fava S, et al. Efficacy of a National Cholesterol Education Program Step 2 diet in normolipidemic and hypercholesterolemic middle-aged and elderly men and women. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1995;15:1079-1085.
79. DeBusk RF, Miller NH, Superko HR, et al. A case-management system for coronary risk factor modification after acute myocardial infarction. Ann Intern Med 1994;120:721-729.
80. Haskell WL, Alderman EL, Fair JM, et al. Effects of intensive multiple risk factor reduction on coronary atherosclerosis and clinical cardiac events in men and women with coronary artery disease. The Stanford Coronary Risk Intervention Project (SCRIP). Circulation 1994;89:975-990.
81. Marrs JC. Pharmacy perspectives in dyslipidemia management: Strategies for improving patient outcomes. US Pharmacist 2010;35:3-18.
82. Machado M, Nassor N, Bajcar JM, Guzzo GC, Einarson TR. Sensitivity of patient outcomes to pharmacist interventions. Part III: Systematic review and meta-analysis in hyperlipidemia management. Ann Pharmacother 2008;42:1195- 1207.
83. O'Donnell DC, Chen NT, Piziak VK. Goal attainment and maintenance of serum cholesterol level in a pharmacistcoordinated lipid clinic. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2001; 58:325-330.
84. Collins C, Kramer A, O'Day ME, Low MB. Evaluation of patient and provider satisfaction with a pharmacistmanaged lipid clinic in a Veterans Affairs medical center. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2008;65:2237-2243.
85. Evangelista LS, Dracup K. A closer look at compliance research in heart failure patients in the last decade. Prog Cardiovasc Nurs 2000;15:97-103.
86. Petrilla AA, Benner JS, Battleman DS, Tierce JC, Hazard EH. Evidence-based interventions to improve patient compliance with antihypertensive and lipid-lowering medication. Int J Clin Pract 2005;59:1441-1451.
87. De Geest S, Renteln-Kruse W, Steeman E, Degraeve S, Abraham IL. Compliance issues with the geriatric population: Complexity with aging. Nurs Clin North Am 1998; 33:467-480.
88. Albert NM. Improving medication adherence in chronic cardiovascular disease. Crit Care Nurse 2008;28:54-64.
89. Becker DM, Raqueno JV, Yook RM, et al. Nurse-mediated cholesterol management compared with enhanced primary care in siblings of individuals with premature coronary disease. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:1533-1539.
90. Levensky ER, Forcehimes A, O'Donohue WT, Beitz K. Motivational interviewing: An evidence-based approach to counseling helps patients follow treatment recommendations. Am J Nurs 2007;107:50-58.
91. Stafford RS, Radley DC. The potential of pill splitting to achieve cost savings. Am J Manag Care 2002;8:706-712.
92. Carr-Lopez SM, Mallett MS, Morse T. The tablet splitter: Barrier to compliance or cost-saving instrument? Am J Health Syst Pharm 1995;52:2707-2708.
93. Fawell NG, Cookson TL, Scranton SS. Relationship between tablet splitting and compliance, drug acquisition cost, and patient acceptance. Am J Health Syst Pharm 1999;56:2542-2545.
94. Gee M, Hasson NK, Hahn T, et al. Effects of a tabletsplitting program in patients taking HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors: Analysis of clinical effects, patient satisfaction, compliance, and cost avoidance. J Manag Care Pharm 2002;8:453-458.
95. Bachynsky J, Wiens C, Melnychuk K. The practice of splitting tablets - Cost and therapeutic aspects. Pharmacoeconomics 2002;20:339-346.
96. McDevitt JT, Gurst AH, Chen Y. Accuracy of tablet splitting. Pharmacotherapy 1998;18:193-197.
97. Choe HM, Stevenson JG, Streetman DS, Heisler M, Sanford CJ, Piette JD. Impact of financial incentives on participation and outcomes in a statin pill-splitting program. Am J Manag Care 2007;13:298-304.
98. Kaufman MB. Electronic medication management system available to improve medication adherence. Formulary 2008;43:223.
99. Rosen MI, Ryan C, Rigsby M. Motivational enhancement and MEMS review to improve medication adherence. Behav Change 2002;19:183-190.
100. Fendrick AM, Smith DG, Chernew ME, et al. A benefitbased copay: Patient contribution based on total benefits, not drug acquisition cost. Am J Manag Care 2001;7:861-867.
101. Thiebaud P, Patel BV, Nichol MB. The demand for statin: The effect of copay on utilization and compliance. Health Econ 2008;17:83-97.
102. Chernew ME, Shah MR, Wegh A, et al. Impact of decreasing copayments on medication adherence within a disease management environment. Health Affairs (Millwood) 2008;27:103-112.
103. Sokol MC, McGuigan KA, Verbrugge RR, Epstein RS. Impact of medication adherence on hospitalization risk and healthcare cost. Med Care 2005;43:521-530.
104. Bunting BA, Smith BH, Sutherland SE. The Asheville Project: Clinical and economic outcomes of a communitybased long-term medication therapy management program for hypertension and dyslipidemia. J Am Pharm Assoc 2008;48:23-31.
105. Tsuyuki RT, Johnson JA, Teo KK, et al. A randomized trial of the effect of community pharmacist intervention on cholesterol risk management: The Study of Cardiovascular Risk Interventions by Pharmacists (SCRIP). Arch Intern Med 2002;162:1149-1155.
106. Burton WN, Chen CY, Schultz AB, Edington DW. The association between achieving low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) goal and statin treatment in an employee population. Popul Health Manag 2010;13:1-8.
107. Bloch MJ, Armstrong DS, Dettling L, Hardy A, Caterino K, Barrie S. Partners in lowering cholesterol: Comparison of a multidisciplinary educational program, monetary incentives, or usual care in the treatment of dyslipidemia identified among employees. J Occup Environ Med 2006;48: 675-681.
108. Goldman DP, Joyce GF, Zheng Y. Prescription drug sharing: Associations with medication and medical utilization and spending and health. JAMA 2007;298:61-69.
109. Schedlbauer A, Schroeder K, Peters TJ, Fahey T. Interventions to improve adherence to lipid lowering medication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;:CD004371.
110. Afonso NM, Nassif G, Aranha ANF, DeLor B, Cardozo LJ. Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol goal attainment among high-risk patients: Does a combined intervention targeting patients and providers work? Am J Manag Care 2006; 12:589-594.