Personalized medicine: Is it a pharmacogenetic mirage?

British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology

Volumn 74, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 698-721

  Shah, Rashmi R ^a   Shah, Devron R ^a  

^a Rashmi Shah Consultancy Ltd   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Azathioprine; Clopidogrel; Irinotecan; Pharmacogenetics; Tamoxifen; Warfarin

Indexed keywords

ABACAVIR; ACENOCOUMAROL; APIXABAN; ARYLDIALKYLPHOSPHATASE 1; AZATHIOPRINE; CLOPIDOGREL; CYTOCHROME P450 1A2; CYTOCHROME P450 2C19; CYTOCHROME P450 2C9; CYTOCHROME P450 2D6; CYTOCHROME P450 3A4; DABIGATRAN; ENDOXIFEN; FIRTECAN; FLUCLOXACILLIN; GLUCURONOSYLTRANSFERASE 1A1; HLA B57 ANTIGEN; IRINOTECAN; MERCAPTOPURINE; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE PROTEIN 1; ORGANIC ANION TRANSPORTER 2; PERHEXILINE; PHENPROCOUMON; RIVAROXABAN; SULFOTRANSFERASE 1A1; TAMOXIFEN; THIORIDAZINE; TRASTUZUMAB; UNINDEXED DRUG; WARFARIN;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ARTICLE; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; BLEEDING; BONE MARROW TOXICITY; CANCER MORTALITY; CANCER SURVIVAL; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CLINICAL MEDICINE; CLINICAL PRACTICE; COLORECTAL CANCER; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DIARRHEA; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG GLUCURONIDATION; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG LABELING; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EFFECT SIZE; ENZYME DEFICIENCY; ESTROGEN RECEPTOR POSITIVE BREAST CANCER; ETHNIC DIFFERENCE; ETHNICITY; EVIDENCE BASED PRACTICE; GAIN OF FUNCTION MUTATION; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; GENE FREQUENCY; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC DIFFERENCE; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; GENETIC SCREENING; GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE CORRELATION; HAPLOTYPE; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HEPATITIS; HEREDITY; HUMAN; INTERNATIONAL NORMALIZED RATIO; JAPANESE; KIDNEY CLEARANCE; LAW SUIT; LEUKOPENIA; LIVER TOXICITY; LOSS OF FUNCTION MUTATION; MEDICOLEGAL ASPECT; NEOPLASM; NEUROPATHY; NEUTROPENIA; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; OVERALL SURVIVAL; PATIENT PREFERENCE; PERCUTANEOUS CORONARY INTERVENTION; PERSONALIZED MEDICINE; PHARMACOGENETICS; PHYSICIAN; PREDICTIVE VALUE; PRESCRIPTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROMOTER REGION; QT PROLONGATION; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RECURRENCE FREE SURVIVAL; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; THROMBOCYTE AGGREGATION; THROMBOCYTE AGGREGATION INHIBITION; THROMBOEMBOLISM; TORSADE DES POINTES; TREATMENT RESPONSE;

DRUG LABELING; GENETIC TESTING; HUMANS; INDIVIDUALIZED MEDICINE; PHARMACOGENETICS;

EID: 84865853084     PISSN: 03065251     EISSN: 13652125     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2012.04328.x     Document Type: Article

References (160)

1. Hood E. Pharmacogenomics: the promise of personalized medicine. Environ Health Perspect 2003; 111: A581-9.
2. Priori SG, Napolitano C, Schwartz PJ. Low penetrance in the long-QT syndrome: clinical impact. Circulation 1999; 99: 529-33.
3. Shah RR. Pharmacogenetic aspects of drug-induced torsade de pointes: potential tool for improving clinical drug development and prescribing. Drug Saf 2004; 27: 145-72.
4. Gerlinger M, Rowan AJ, Horswell S, Larkin J, Endesfelder D, Gronroos E, Martinez P, Matthews N, Stewart A, Tarpey P, Varela I, Phillimore B, Begum S, McDonald NQ, Butler A, Jones D, Raine K, Latimer C, Santos CR, Nohadani M, Eklund AC, Spencer-Dene B, Clark G, Pickering L, Stamp G, Gore M, Szallasi Z, Downward J, Futreal PA, Swanton C. Intratumor heterogeneity and branched evolution revealed by multiregion sequencing. N Engl J Med 2012; 366: 883-92.
5. Motulsky AG. Drug reactions, enzymes, and biochemical genetics. J Am Med Assoc 1957; 165: 835-7.
6. Vogel F. Moderne Probleme der Humangenetik. Ergeb Inn Med Kinderheilkd 1959; 12: 52-125.
7. Pirmohamed M. Pharmacogenetics: past, present and future. Drug Discov Today 2011; 16: 852-61.
8. Goldstein DB, Tate SK, Sisodiya SM. Pharmacogenetics goes genomic. Nat Rev Genet 2003; 4: 937-47.
9. The Royal Society. Personalised medicines: hopes and realities. 2005, London. Available at http://royalsociety.org/uploadedFiles/Royal_Society_Content/policy/publications/2005/9631.pdf (last accessed 12 January 2012).
10. Frueh FW, Amur S, Mummaneni P, Epstein RS, Aubert RE, DeLuca TM, Verbrugge RR, Burckart GJ, Lesko LJ. Pharmacogenomic biomarker information in drug labels approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration: prevalence of related drug use. Pharmacotherapy 2008; 28: 992-8.
11. Papaluca Amati M. Personalised medicine towards the market and patients: the approval process. 2011 Available at http://ec.europa.eu/research/health/pdf/event06/13052011/marisa-papaluca-amati_en.pdf (last accessed 12 January 2012).
12. Uyama Y. Applications of PGx in PK at PMDA: experience and expectations Presentation at EMEA/EFPIA Workshop on Integrating PGx into Early Drug Development, London UK. 2008 Available at http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Presentation/2009/11/WC500010649.pdf (last accessed 12 January 2012).
13. Becquemont L, Alfirevic A, Amstutz U, Brauch H, Jacqz-Aigrain E, Laurent-Puig P, Molina MA, Niemi M, Schwab M, Somogyi AA, Thervet E, Maitland-van der Zee A-H, van Kuilenburg ABP, van Schaik RHN, Verstuyft C, Wadelius M, Daly AK. Practical recommendations for pharmacogenomics-based prescription: 2010 ESF-UB Conference on Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics. Pharmacogenomics 2011; 12: 113-24.
14. Otsubo Y, Asahina Y, Noguchi A, Sato Y, Ando Y, Uyama Y. Similarities and differences between US and Japan as to pharmacogenomic biomarker information in drug labels. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2012; 27: 142-9.
15. Squassina A, Manchia M, Manolopoulos VG, Artac M, Lappa-Manakou C, Karkabouna S, Mitropoulos K, Del Zompo M, Patrinos GP. Realities and expectations of pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine: impact of translating genetic knowledge into clinical practice. Pharmacogenomics 2010; 11: 1149-67.
16. European Medicines Agency. Concept paper on key aspects for the use of pharmacogenomic methodologies in the pharmacovigilance evaluation of medicinal products (EMA/CHMP/917570/2011). 2011, London. Available at http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Scientific_guideline/2012/01/WC500120775.pdf (last accessed 12 January 2012).
17. Relling MV, Klein TE. CPIC: Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium of the Pharmacogenomics Research Network. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2011; 89: 464-7.
18. Hartigan-Go K, Bateman DN, Nyberg G, Mårtensson E, Thomas SH. Concentration-related pharmacodynamic effects of thioridazine and its metabolites in humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1996; 60: 543-53.
19. Llerena A, Berecz R, de la Rubia A, Dorado PQ. Tc interval lengthening is related to CYP2D6 hydroxylation capacity and plasma concentration of thioridazine in patients. J Psychopharmacol 2002; 16: 361-4.
20. Berecz R, de la Rubia A, Dorado P, Fernández-Salguero P, Dahl ML, Llerena A. Thioridazine steady-state plasma concentrations are influenced by tobacco smoking and CYP2D6, but not by the CYP2C9 genotype. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2003; 59: 45-50.
21. Thanacoody RH, Daly AK, Reilly JG, Ferrier IN, Thomas SH. Factors affecting drug concentrations and QT interval during thioridazine therapy. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2007; 82: 555-65.
22. Baumann P, Meyer JW, Amey M, Baettig D, Bryois C, Jonzier-Perey M, Koeb L, Monney C, Woggon B. Dextromethorphan and mephenytoin phenotyping of patients treated with thioridazine or amitriptyline. Ther Drug Monit 1992; 14: 1-8.
23. Yasui N, Tybring G, Otani K, Mihara K, Suzuki A, Svensson JO, Kaneko S. Effects of thioridazine, an inhibitor of CYP2D6, on the steady-state plasma concentrations of the enantiomers of mianserin and its active metabolite, desmethylmianserin, in depressed Japanese patients. Pharmacogenetics 1997; 7: 369-74.
24. Wójcikowski J, Maurel P, Daniel WA. Characterization of human cytochrome P450 enzymes involved in the metabolism of the piperidine-type phenothiazine neuroleptic thioridazine. Drug Metab Dispos 2006; 34: 471-6.
25. Schwarz UI, Stein CM. Genetic determinants of dose and clinical outcomes in patients receiving oral anticoagulants. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2006; 80: 7-12.
26. Schwarz UI, Ritchie MD, Bradford Y, Li C, Dudek SM, Frye-Anderson A, Kim RB, Roden DM, Stein CM. Genetic determinants of response to warfarin during initial anticoagulation. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 999-1008.
27. Johnson JA, Gong L, Whirl-Carrillo M, Gage BF, Scott SA, Stein CM, Anderson JL, Kimmel SE, Lee MT, Pirmohamed M, Wadelius M, Klein TE, Altman RB. Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium guidelines for CYP2C9 and VKORC1 genotypes and warfarin dosing. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2011; 90: 625-9.
28. Anderson JL, Horne BD, Stevens SM, Grove AS, Barton S, Nicholas ZP, Kahn SF, May HT, Samuelson KM, Muhlestein JB, Carlquist JF, Couma-Gen Investigators. Randomized trial of genotype-guided versus standard warfarin dosing in patients initiating oral anticoagulation. Circulation 2007; 116: 2563-70.
29. Avery PJ, Jorgensen A, Hamberg AK, Wadelius M, Pirmohamed M, Kamali F, EU-PACT Study Group. A proposal for an individualized pharmacogenetics-based warfarin initiation dose regimen for patients commencing anticoagulation therapy. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2011; 90: 701-6.
30. Johnson EG, Horne BD, Carlquist JF, Anderson JL. Genotype-based dosing algorithms for warfarin therapy: data review and recommendations. Mol Diagn Ther 2011; 15: 255-64.
31. Klein TE, Altman RB, Eriksson N, Gage BF, Kimmel SE, Lee MT, Limdi NA, Page D, Roden DM, Wagner MJ, Caldwell MD, Johnson JA, for International Warfarin Pharmacogenetics Consortium. Estimation of the warfarin dose with clinical and pharmacogenetic data. N Engl J Med 2009; 360: 753-64.
32. Anderson JL, Horne BD, Stevens SM, Woller SC, Samuelson KM, Mansfield JW, Robinson M, Barton S, Brunisholz K, Mower CP, Huntinghouse JA, Rollo JS, Siler D, Bair TL, Knight S, Muhlestein JB, Carlquist JF. A randomized and clinical effectiveness trial comparing two pharmacogenetic algorithms and standard care for individualizing warfarin dosing (CoumaGen-II). Circulation 2012; 125: 1997-2005.
33. Verhoef TI, Redekop WK, Buikema MM, Schalekamp T, Van der Meer FJ, LE Cessie S, Wessels JA, VAN Schie RM, DE Boer A, Teichert M, Visser LE, Maitland-Van der Zee AH; On Behalf of the EU-PACT Group. Long-term anticoagulant effects of the CYP2C9 and VKORC1 genotypes in acenocoumarol users. J Thromb Haemost 2012; 10: 606-14.
34. Cavallari LH, Limdi NA. Warfarin pharmacogenomics. Curr Opin Mol Ther 2009; 11: 243-51.
35. Aquilante CL, Langaee TY, Lopez LM, Yarandi HN, Tromberg JS, Mohuczy D, Gaston KL, Waddell CD, Chirico MJ, Johnson JA. Influence of coagulation factor, vitamin K epoxide reductase complex subunit 1, and cytochrome P450 2C9 gene polymorphisms on warfarin dose requirements. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2006; 79: 291-302.
36. Au N, Rettie AE. Pharmacogenomics of 4-hydroxycoumarin anticoagulants. Drug Metab Rev 2008; 40: 355-75.
37. Takeuchi F, McGinnis R, Bourgeois S, Barnes C, Eriksson N, Soranzo N, Whittaker P, Ranganath V, Kumanduri V, McLaren W, Holm L, Lindh J, Rane A, Wadelius M, Deloukas P. A genome-wide association study confirms VKORC1, CYP2C9, and CYP4F2 as principal genetic determinants of warfarin dose. PLoS Genet 2009; 5: e1000433.
38. Cen HJ, Zeng WT, Leng XY, Huang M, Chen X, Li JL, Huang ZY, Bi HC, Wang XD, He YL, He F, Zhou RN, Zheng QS, Zhao LZ. CYP4F2 rs2108622: a minor significant genetic factor of warfarin dose in Han Chinese patients with mechanical heart valve replacement. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2010; 70: 234-40.
39. Caldwell MD, Awad T, Johnson JA, Gage BF, Falkowski M, Gardina P, Hubbard J, Turpaz Y, Langaee TY, Eby C, King CR, Brower A, Schmelzer JR, Glurich I, Vidaillet HJ, Yale SH, Qi Zhang K, Berg RL, Burmester JK. CYP4F2 genetic variant alters required warfarin dose. Blood 2008; 111: 4106-12.
40. Vargens DD, Damasceno A, Petzl-Erler M-L, Suarez-Kurtz G. Combined CYP2C9, VKORC1 and CYP4F2 frequencies among Amerindians, Mozambicans and Brazilians. Pharmacogenomics 2011; 12: 769-72.
41. Borgiani P, Ciccacci C, Forte V, Sirianni E, Novelli L, Bramanti P, Novelli G. CYP4F2 genetic variant (rs2108622) significantly contributes to warfarin dosing variability in the Italian population. Pharmacogenomics 2009; 10: 261-6.
42. Singh O, Sandanaraj E, Subramanian K, Lee LH, Chowbay B. Influence of CYP4F2 rs 2108622 (V433M) on warfarin dose requirements in Asian patients. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2011; 26: 130-6.
43. Nakamura K, Obayashi K, Araki T, Aomori T, Fujita Y, Okada Y, Kurabayashi M, Hasegawa A, Ohmori S, Nakamura T, Yamamoto K. CYP4F2 gene polymorphism as a contributor to warfarin maintenance dose in Japanese subjects. J Clin Pharm Ther 2012; DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2710.2011.01317.x.
44. Shahin MH, Khalifa SI, Gong Y, Hammad LN, Sallam MT, El Shafey M, Ali SS, Mohamed ME, Langaee T, Johnson JA. Genetic and nongenetic factors associated with warfarin dose requirements in Egyptian patients. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2011; 21: 130-5.
45. Gage BF, Eby C, Johnson JA, Deych E, Rieder MJ, Ridker PM, Milligan PE, Grice G, Lenzini P, Rettie AE, Aquilante CL, Grosso L, Marsh S, Langaee T, Farnett LE, Voora D, Veenstra DL, Glynn RJ, Barrett A, McLeod HL. Use of pharmacogenetic and clinical factors to predict the therapeutic dose of warfarin. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2008; 84: 326-31.
46. Limdi NA, Wadelius M, Cavallari L, Eriksson N, Crawford DC, Lee MT, Chen CH, Motsinger-Reif A, Sagreiya H, Liu N, Wu AH, Gage BF, Jorgensen A, Pirmohamed M, Shin JG, Suarez-Kurtz G, Kimmel SE, Johnson JA, Klein TE, Wagner MJ, International Warfarin Pharmacogenetics Consortium. Warfarin pharmacogenetics: a single VKORC1 polymorphism is predictive of dose across 3 racial groups. Blood 2010; 115: 3827-34.
47. Perera MA, Gamazon E, Cavallari LH, Patel SR, Poindexter S, Kittles RA, Nicolae D, Cox NJ. The missing association: sequencing-based discovery of novel SNPs in VKORC1 and CYP2C9 that affect warfarin dose in African Americans. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2011; 89: 408-15.
48. Zambon CF, Pengo V, Padrini R, Basso D, Schiavon S, Fogar P, Nisi A, Frigo AC, Moz S, Pelloso M, Plebani M. VKORC1, CYP2C9 and CYP4F2 genetic-based algorithm for warfarin dosing: an Italian retrospective study. Pharmacogenomics 2011; 12: 15-25.
49. van Schie RM, Wadelius MI, Kamali F, Daly AK, Manolopoulos VG, de Boer A, Barallon R, Verhoef TI, Kirchheiner J, Haschke-Becher E, Briz M, Rosendaal FR, Redekop WK, Pirmohamed M, Maitland van der Zee AH. Genotype-guided dosing of coumarin derivatives: the European pharmacogenetics of anticoagulant therapy (EU-PACT) trial design. Pharmacogenomics 2009; 10: 1687-95.
50. Joo J, Geller NL, French B, Kimmel SE, Rosenberg Y, Ellenberg JH. Prospective alpha allocation in the Clarification of Optimal Anticoagulation through Genetics (COAG) trial. Clin Trials 2010; 7: 597-604.
51. Do EJ, Lenzini P, Eby CS, Bass AR, McMillin GA, Stevens SM, Woller SC, Pendleton RC, Anderson JL, Proctor P, Nunley RM, Davila-Roman V, Gage BF. Genetics informatics trial (GIFT) of warfarin to prevent deep vein thrombosis (DVT): rationale and study design. Pharmacogenomics J 2012; DOI: 10.1038/tpj.2011.18.
52. Coordinating Committee, De Caterina R, Husted S, Wallentin L, De Caterina R, Husted S, Wallentin L, Andreotti F, Arnesen H, Bachmann F, Baigent C, Huber K, Jespersen J, Kristensen SD, Lip GY, Morais J, Rasmussen LH, Siegbahn A, Verheugt FW, Weitz JI. New oral anticoagulants in atrial fibrillation and acute coronary syndromes: ESC Working Group on Thrombosis-Task Force on Anticoagulants in Heart Disease Position Paper. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 59: 1413-25.
53. Schulman S. Is the warfarin saga over? J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2012; 42: 51-5.
54. Hulot JS, Bura A, Villard E, Azizi M, Remones V, Goyenvalle C, Aiach M, Lechat P, Gaussem P. Cytochrome P450 2C19 loss-of-function polymorphism is a major determinant of clopidogrel responsiveness in healthy subjects. Blood 2006; 108: 2244-7.
55. Juurlink DN, Gomes T, Ko DT, Szmitko PE, Austin PC, Tu JV, Henry DA, Kopp A, Mamdani MM. A population-based study of the drug interaction between proton pump inhibitors and clopidogrel. CMAJ 2009; 180: 713-8.
56. Simon T, Verstuyft C, Mary-Krause M, Quteineh L, Drouet E, Méneveau N, Steg PG, Ferrières J, Danchin N, Becquemont L, Registry of Acute ST-Elevation and Non-ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction (FAST-MI) Investigators. Genetic determinants of response to clopidogrel and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 2009; 360: 363-75.
57. Shuldiner AR, O'Connell JR, Bliden KP, Gandhi A, Ryan K, Horenstein RB, Damcott CM, Pakyz R, Tantry US, Gibson Q, Pollin TI, Post W, Parsa A, Mitchell BD, Faraday N, Herzog W, Gurbel PA. Association of cytochrome P450 2C19 genotype with the antiplatelet effect and clinical efficacy of clopidogrel therapy. JAMA 2009; 302: 849-57.
58. Sibbing D, Stegherr J, Latz W, Koch W, Mehilli J, Dörrler K, Morath T, Schömig A, Kastrati A, von Beckerath N. Cytochrome P450 2C19 loss-of-function polymorphism and stent thrombosis following percutaneous coronary intervention. Eur Heart J 2009; 30: 916-22.
59. Giusti B, Gori AM, Marcucci R, Saracini C, Sestini I, Paniccia R, Buonamici P, Antoniucci D, Abbate R, Gensini GF. Relation of cytochrome P450 2C19 loss-of-function polymorphism to occurrence of drug-eluting coronary stent thrombosis. Am J Cardiol 2009; 103: 806-11.
60. Frére C, Cuisset T, Gaborit B, Alessi MC, Hulot JS. The CYP2C19*17 allele is associated with better platelet response to clopidogrel in patients admitted for non-ST acute coronary syndrome. J Thromb Haemost 2009; 7: 1409-11.
61. Sibbing D, Koch W, Gebhard D, Schuster T, Braun S, Stegherr J, Morath T, Schömig A, von Beckerath N, Kastrati A. Cytochrome 2C19*17 allelic variant, platelet aggregation, bleeding events, and stent thrombosis in clopidogrel-treated patients with coronary stent placement. Circulation 2010; 121: 512-8.
62. Holmes DR Jr, Dehmer GJ, Kaul S, Leifer D, O'Gara PT, Stein CM. ACCF/AHA clopidogrel clinical alert: approaches to the FDA 'boxed warning': a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on clinical expert consensus documents and the American Heart Association endorsed by the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010; 56: 321-41.
63. Kaneko A, Lum JK, Yaviong L, Takahashi N, Ishizaki T, Bertilsson L, Kobayakawa T, Björkman A. High and variable frequencies of CYP2C19 mutations: medical consequences of poor drug metabolism in Vanuatu and other Pacific islands. Pharmacogenetics 1999; 9: 581-90.
64. Mega JL, Hochholzer W, Frelinger AL 3rd, Kluk MJ, Angiolillo DJ, Kereiakes DJ, Isserman S, Rogers WJ, Ruff CT, Contant C, Pencina MJ, Scirica BM, Longtine JA, Michelson AD, Sabatine MS. Dosing clopidogrel based on CYP2C19 genotype and the effect on platelet reactivity in patients with stable cardiovascular disease. JAMA 2011; 306: 2221-8.
65. Bauer T, Bouman HJ, van Werkum JW, Ford NF, ten Berg JM, Taubert D. Impact of CYP2C19 variant genotypes on clinical efficacy of antiplatelet treatment with clopidogrel: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2011; 343: d4588. doi: 10.1136/bmj.d4588.
66. Holmes MV, Perel P, Shah T, Hingorani AD, Casas JP. CYP2C19 genotype, clopidogrel metabolism, platelet function, and cardiovascular events: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2011; 306: 2704-14.
67. Ma TKW, Lam YY, Tan VP, Yan BP. Variability in response to clopidogrel: how important are pharmacogenetics and drug interactions? Br J Clin Pharmacol 2011; 72: 697-706.
68. Mega JL, Close SL, Wiviott SD, Shen L, Hockett RD, Brandt JT, Walker JR, Antman EM, Macias W, Braunwald E, Sabatine MS. Cytochrome P-450 polymorphisms and response to clopidogrel. N Engl J Med 2009; 360: 354-62.
69. Mega JL, Close SL, Wiviott SD, Shen L, Walker JR, Simon T, Antman EM, Braunwald E, Sabatine MS. Genetic variants in ABCB1 and CYP2C19 and cardiovascular outcomes after treatment with clopidogrel and prasugrel in the TRITON-TIMI 38 trial: a pharmacogenetic analysis. Lancet 2010; 376: 1312-9.
70. Delaney JT, Ramirez AH, Bowton E, Pulley JM, Basford MA, Schildcrout JS, Shi Y, Zink R, Oetjens M, Xu H, Cleator JH, Jahangir E, Ritchie MD, Masys DR, Roden DM, Crawford DC, Denny JC. Predicting clopidogrel response using DNA samples linked to an electronic health record. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2012; 91: 257-63.
71. Bouman HJ, Schömig E, van Werkum JW, Velder J, Hackeng CM, Hirschhäuser C, Waldmann C, Schmalz HG, ten Berg JM, Taubert D. Paraoxonase-1 is a major determinant of clopidogrel efficacy. Nat Med 2011; 17: 110-6.
72. Lewis JP, Fisch AS, Ryan K, O'Connell JR, Gibson Q, Mitchell BD, Shen H, Tanner K, Horenstein RB, Pakzy R, Tantry US, Bliden KP, Gurbel PA, Shuldiner AR. Paraoxonase 1 (PON1) gene variants are not associated with clopidogrel response. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2011; 90: 568-74.
73. Hulot JS, Collet JP, Cayla G, Silvain J, Allanic F, Bellemain-Appaix A, Scott SA, Montalescot G. CYP2C19 but not PON1 genetic variants influence clopidogrel pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and clinical efficacy in post-myocardial infarction patients. Circ Cardiovasc Interv 2011; 4: 422-8.
74. Polasek TM, Doogue MP, Miners JO. Metabolic activation of clopidogrel: in vitro data provide conflicting evidence for the contributions of CYP2C19 and PON-1. Ther Adv Drug Saf 2011; 2: 253-61.
75. Beitelshees AL, Horenstein RB, Vesely MR, Mehra MR, Shuldiner AR. Pharmacogenetics and clopidogrel response in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary interventions. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2011; 89: 455-9.
76. Jin Y, Desta Z, Stearns V, Ward B, Ho H, Lee KH, Skaar T, Storniolo AM, Li L, Araba A, Blanchard R, Nguyen A, Ullmer L, Hayden J, Lemler S, Weinshilboum RM, Rae JM, Hayes DF, Flockhart DA. CYP2D6 genotype, antidepressant use, and tamoxifen metabolism during adjuvant breast cancer treatment. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005; 97: 30-9.
77. Goetz MP, Rae JM, Suman VJ, Safgren SL, Ames MM, Visscher DW, Reynolds C, Couch FJ, Lingle WL, Flockhart DA, Desta Z, Perez EA, Ingle JN. Pharmacogenetics of tamoxifen biotransformation is associated with clinical outcomes of efficacy and hot flashes. J Clin Oncol 2005; 23: 9312-8.
78. Food and Drug Administration, USA. Summary minutes of the meeting of the Clinical Pharmacology Subcommittee of the Advisory Committee for Pharmaceutical Science. 2006. Available at http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/06/minutes/2006-4248m1.pdf (last accessed 12 January 2012).
79. Schroth W, Antoniadou L, Fritz P, Schwab M, Muerdter T, Zanger UM, Simon W, Eichelbaum M, Brauch H. Breast cancer treatment outcome with adjuvant tamoxifen relative to patient CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 genotypes. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25: 5187-93.
80. Schroth W, Goetz MP, Hamann U, Fasching PA, Schmidt M, Winter S, Fritz P, Simon W, Suman VJ, Ames MM, Safgren SL, Kuffel MJ, Ulmer HU, Boländer J, Strick R, Beckmann MW, Koelbl H, Weinshilboum RM, Ingle JN, Eichelbaum M, Schwab M, Brauch H. Association between CYP2D6 polymorphisms and outcomes among women with early stage breast cancer treated with tamoxifen. JAMA 2009; 302: 1429-36.
81. The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Tamoxifen for breast cancer: drug interactions involving CYP2D6*10; 4: A1.
82. Abraham JE, Maranian MJ, Driver KE, Platte R, Kalmyrzaev B, Baynes C, Luccarini C, Earl HM, Dunning AM, Pharoah PD, Caldas C. CYP2D6 gene variants and their association with breast cancer susceptibility. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2011; 20: 1255-8.
83. Thompson AM, Johnson A, Quinlan P, Hillman G, Fontecha M, Bray SE, Purdie CA, Jordan LB, Ferraldeschi R, Latif A, Hadfield KD, Clarke RB, Ashcroft L, Evans DG, Howell A, Nikoloff M, Lawrence J, Newman WG. Comprehensive CYP2D6 genotype and adherence affect outcome in breast cancer patients treated with tamoxifen monotherapy. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2011; 125: 279-87.
84. Kiyotani K, Mushiroda T, Sasa M, Bando Y, Sumitomo I, Hosono N, Kubo M, Nakamura Y, Zembutsu H. Impact of CYP2D6*10 on recurrence-free survival in breast cancer patients receiving adjuvant tamoxifen therapy. Cancer Sci 2008; 99: 995-9.
85. Kiyotani K, Mushiroda T, Nakamura Y, Zembutsu H. Pharmacogenomics of tamoxifen: roles of drug metabolizing enzymes and transporters. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2012; 27: 122-31.
86. Kiyotani K, Mushiroda T, Hosono N, Tsunoda T, Kubo M, Aki F, Okazaki Y, Hirata K, Takatsuka Y, Okazaki M, Ohsumi S, Yamakawa T, Sasa M, Nakamura Y, Zembutsu H. Lessons for pharmacogenomics studies: association study between CYP2D6*10; 20: 565-8.
87. Shah RR, Smith RL. Phenocopy and phenoconversion: do they complicate association studies? Pharmacogenomics 2012; 13: 981-4.
88. Stearns V, Johnson MD, Rae JM, Morocho A, Novielli A, Bhargava P, Hayes DF, Desta Z, Flockhart DA. Active tamoxifen metabolite plasma concentrations after coadministration of tamoxifen and the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor paroxetine. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003; 95: 1758-64.
89. Crewe HK, Notley LM, Wunsch RM, Lennard MS, Gillam EM. Metabolism of tamoxifen by recombinant human cytochrome P450 enzymes: formation of the 4-hydroxy, 4′-hydroxy and N-desmethyl metabolites and isomerization of trans-4-hydroxytamoxifen. Drug Metab Dispos 2002; 30: 869-74.
90. Kiyotani K, Mushiroda T, Imamura CK, Hosono N, Tsunoda T, Kubo M, Tanigawara Y, Flockhart DA, Desta Z, Skaar TC, Aki F, Hirata K, Takatsuka Y, Okazaki M, Ohsumi S, Yamakawa T, Sasa M, Nakamura Y, Zembutsu H. Significant effect of polymorphisms in CYP2D6*10; 28: 1287-93.
91. Teft WA, Mansell SE, Kim RB. Endoxifen, the active metabolite of tamoxifen, is a substrate of the efflux transporter P-glycoprotein (multidrug resistance 1). Drug Metab Dispos 2011; 39: 558-62.
92. Iusuf D, Teunissen SF, Wagenaar E, Rosing H, Beijnen JH, Schinkel AH. P-glycoprotein (ABCB1) transports the primary active tamoxifen metabolites endoxifen and 4-hydroxytamoxifen and restricts their brain penetration. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2011; 337: 710-7.
93. van Schaik RH, Kok M, Sweep FC, van Vliet M, van Fessem M, Meijer-van Gelder ME, Seynaeve C, Lindemans J, Wesseling J, Van 't Veer LJ, Span PN, van Laarhoven H, Sleijfer S, Foekens JA, Linn SC, Berns EM. The CYP2C19*2 genotype predicts tamoxifen treatment outcome in advanced breast cancer patients. Pharmacogenomics 2011; 12: 1137-46.
94. Ruiter R, Bijl MJ, van Schaik RH, Berns EM, Hofman A, Coebergh JW, van Noord C, Visser LE, Stricker BH. CYP2C19*2 polymorphism is associated with increased survival in breast cancer patients using tamoxifen. Pharmacogenomics 2010; 11: 1367-75.
95. Kiyotani K, Mushiroda T, Tsunoda T, Morizono T, Hosono N, Kubo M, Tanigawara Y, Imamura CK, Flockhart DA, Aki F, Hirata K, Takatsuka Y, Okazaki M, Ohsumi S, Yamakawa T, Sasa M, Nakamura Y, Zembutsu H. A genome-wide association study identifies locus at 10q22 associated with clinical outcomes of adjuvant tamoxifen therapy for breast cancer patients in Japanese. Hum Mol Genet 2012; 21: 1665-72.
96. Iyer L, Hall D, Das S, Mortell MA, Ramirez J, Kim S, DiRienzo A, Ratain MJ. Phenotype-genotype correlation of in vitro SN-38 (active metabolite of irinotecan) and bilirubin glucuronidation in human liver tissue with UGT1A1 promoter polymorphism. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1999; 65: 576-82.
97. Innocenti F, Undevia SD, Iyer L, Chen PX, Das S, Kocherginsky M, Karrison T, Janisch L, Ramírez J, Rudin CM, Vokes EE, Ratain MJ. Genetic variants in the UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 gene predict the risk of severe neutropenia of irinotecan. J Clin Oncol 2004; 22: 1382-8.
98. Food and Drug Administration, USA. Report of the meeting of the Clinical Pharmacology Subcommittee of the Advisory Committee for Pharmaceutical Science. 2004. Available at http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/04/minutes/2004-4079M1.pdf (last accessed 12 January 2012).
99. Toffoli G, Cecchin E, Corona G, Russo A, Buonadonna A, D'Andrea M, Pasetto LM, Pessa S, Errante D, De Pangher V, Giusto M, Medici M, Gaion F, Sandri P, Galligioni E, Bonura S, Boccalon M, Biason P, Frustaci S. The role of UGT1A1??*28 polymorphism in the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of irinotecan in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24: 3061-8.
100. Palomaki GE, Bradley LA, Douglas MP, Kolor K, Dotson WD. Can UGT1A1 genotyping reduce morbidity and mortality in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer treated with irinotecan? An evidence-based review. Genet Med 2009; 11: 21-34.
101. Onoue M, Terada T, Kobayashi M, Katsura T, Matsumoto S, Yanagihara K, Nishimura T, Kanai M, Teramukai S, Shimizu A, Fukushima M, Inui K. UGT1A1*6 polymorphism is most predictive of severe neutropenia induced by irinotecan in Japanese cancer patients. Int J Clin Oncol 2009; 14: 136-42.
102. Smith NF, Figg WD, Sparreboom A. Pharmacogenetics of irinotecan metabolism and transport: an update. Toxicol In Vitro 2006; 20: 163-75.
103. Rhodes KE, Zhang W, Yang D, Press OA, Gordon M, Vallböhmer D, Schultheis AM, Lurje G, Ladner RD, Fazzone W, Iqbal S, Lenz HJ. ABCB1, SLCO1B1 and UGT1A1 gene polymorphisms are associated with toxicity in metastatic colorectal cancer patients treated with first-line irinotecan. Drug Metab Lett 2007; 1: 23-30.
104. Takane H, Kawamoto K, Sasaki T, Moriki K, Moriki K, Kitano H, Higuchi S, Otsubo K, Ieiri I. Life-threatening toxicities in a patient with UGT1A1*6/*28 and SLCO1B1*15/*15 genotypes after irinotecan-based chemotherapy. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2009; 63: 1165-9.
105. Sai K, Kaniwa N, Itoda M, Saito Y, Hasegawa R, Komamura K, Ueno K, Kamakura S, Kitakaze M, Shirao K, Minami H, Ohtsu A, Yoshida T, Saijo N, Kitamura Y, Kamatani N, Ozawa S, Sawada J. Haplotype analysis of ABCB1/MDR1 blocks in a Japanese population reveals genotype-dependent renal clearance of irinotecan. Pharmacogenetics 2003; 13: 741-57.
106. Chen B, Fang J, Zhang W, Jin Z, Yu Z, Cai W. Detection of C1236T, G2677T/A, and C3435T polymorphism of MDR1 by amplification refractory mutation system PCR. J Clin Lab Anal 2009; 23: 110-6.
107. Sipeky C, Csongei V, Jaromi L, Safrany E, Maasz A, Takacs I, Beres J, Fodor L, Szabo M, Melegh B. Genetic variability and haplotype profile of MDR1 (ABCB1) in Roma and Hungarian population samples with a review of the literature. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2011; 26: 206-15.
108. Milojkovic M, Stojnev S, Jovanovic I, Ljubisavljevic S, Stefanovic V, Sunder-Plassman R. Frequency of the C1236T, G2677T/A and C3435T MDR1 gene polymorphisms in the Serbian population. Pharmacol Rep 2011; 63: 808-14.
109. Innocenti F, Kroetz DL, Schuetz E, Dolan ME, Ramírez J, Relling M, Chen P, Das S, Rosner GL, Ratain MJ. Comprehensive pharmacogenetic analysis of irinotecan neutropenia and pharmacokinetics. J Clin Oncol 2009; 27: 2604-14.
110. Fujiwara Y, Minami H. An overview of the recent progress in irinotecan pharmacogenetics. Pharmacogenomics 2010; 11: 391-406.
111. Stanek EJ, Sanders CL, Taber KA, Khalid M, Patel A, Verbrugge RR, Agatep BC, Aubert RE, Epstein RS, Frueh FW. Adoption of pharmacogenomic testing by US physicians: results of a nationwide survey. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2012; 91: 450-8.
112. Cooper RG, Evans DA, Whibley EJ. Polymorphic hydroxylation of perhexiline maleate in man. J Med Genet 1984; 21: 27-33.
113. Singlas E, Goujet MA, Simon P. Pharmacokinetics of perhexiline maleate in anginal patients with and without peripheral neuropathy. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1978; 14: 195-201.
114. Shah RR, Oates NS, Idle JR, Smith RL, Lockhart JD. Impaired oxidation of debrisoquine in patients with perhexiline neuropathy. Br Med J 1982; 284: 295-9.
115. Morgan MY, Reshef R, Shah RR, Oates NS, Smith RL, Sherlock S. Impaired oxidation of debrisoquine in patients with perhexiline liver injury. Gut 1984; 25: 1057-64.
116. Sallustio BC, Westley IS, Morris RG. Pharmacokinetics of the antianginal agent perhexiline: relationship between metabolic ratio and steady-state dose. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2002; 54: 107-14.
117. Barclay ML, Sawyers SM, Begg EJ, Zhang M, Roberts RL, Kennedy MA, Elliott JM. Correlation of CYP2D6 genotype with perhexiline phenotypic metabolizer status. Pharmacogenetics 2003; 13: 627-32.
118. Pillans PI. Drug associated hepatic reactions in New Zealand: 21 years experience. N Z Med J 1996; 109: 315-9.
119. Killalea SM, Krum H. Systematic review of the efficacy and safety of perhexiline in the treatment of ischemic heart disease. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs 2001; 1: 193-204.
120. Phan TT, Shivu GN, Choudhury A, Abozguia K, Davies C, Naidoo U, Ahmed I, Yousef Z, Horowitz J, Frenneaux M. Multi-centre experience on the use of perhexiline in chronic heart failure and refractory angina: old drug, new hope. Eur J Heart Fail 2009; 11: 881-6.
121. Gardiner SJ, Begg EJ. Pharmacogenetic testing for drug metabolizing enzymes: is it happening in practice? Pharmacogenet Genomics 2005; 15: 365-9.
122. Booth RA, Ansari MT, Loit E, Tricco AC, Weeks L, Doucette S, Skidmore B, Sears M, Sy R, Karsh J. Assessment of thiopurine S-methyltransferase activity in patients prescribed thiopurines: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med 2011; 154: 814-23.
123. Fargher EA, Tricker K, Newman W, Elliott R, Roberts SA, Shaffer JL, Bruce I, Payne K. Current use of pharmacogenetic testing: a national survey of thiopurine methyltransferase testing prior to azathioprine prescription. J Clin Pharm Ther 2007; 32: 187-95.
124. Gurwitz D, Rodríguez-Antona C, Payne K, Newman W, Gisbert JP, de Mesa EG, Ibarreta D. Improving pharmacovigilance in Europe: TPMT genotyping and phenotyping in the UK and Spain. Eur J Hum Genet 2009; 17: 991-8.
125. Relling MV, Gardner EE, Sandborn WJ, Schmiegelow K, Pui CH, Yee SW, Stein CM, Carrillo M, Evans WE, Klein TE, Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium. Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium guidelines for thiopurine methyltransferase genotype and thiopurine dosing. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2011; 89: 387-91. Erratum in: Clin Pharmacol Ther 2011; 90: 894.
126. Cuffari C, Dassopoulos T, Turnbough L, Thompson RE, Bayless TM. Thiopurine methyltransferase activity influences clinical response to azathioprine in inflammatory bowel disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004; 2: 410-7.
127. Mallal S, Nolan D, Witt C, Masel G, Martin AM, Moore C, Sayer D, Castley A, Mamotte C, Maxwell D, James I, Christiansen FT. Association between presence of HLA-B*5701, HLA-DR7, and HLA-DQ3 and hypersensitivity to HIV-1 reverse-transcriptase inhibitor abacavir. Lancet 2002; 359: 727-32.
128. Hetherington S, Hughes AR, Mosteller M, Shortino D, Baker KL, Spreen W, Lai E, Davies K, Handley A, Dow DJ, Fling ME, Stocum M, Bowman C, Thurmond LM, Roses AD. Genetic variations in HLA-B region and hypersensitivity reactions to abacavir. Lancet 2002; 359: 1121-2.
129. Hughes AR, Mosteller M, Bansal AT, Davies K, Haneline SA, Lai EH, Nangle K, Scott T, Spreen WR, Warren LL, Roses AD, CNA30027 Study Team, CNA30032 Study Team. Association of genetic variations in HLA-B region with hypersensitivity to abacavir in some, but not all, populations. Pharmacogenomics 2004; 5: 203-11.
130. Zucman D, Truchis P, Majerholc C, Stegman S, Caillat-Zucman S. Prospective screening for human leukocyte antigen-B*5701 avoids abacavir hypersensitivity reaction in the ethnically mixed French HIV population. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2007; 45: 1-3.
131. Hughes AR, Spreen WR, Mosteller M, Warren LL, Lai EH, Brothers CH, Cox C, Nelsen AJ, Hughes S, Thorborn DE, Stancil B, Hetherington SV, Burns DK, Roses AD. Pharmacogenetics of hypersensitivity to abacavir: from PGx hypothesis to confirmation to clinical utility. Pharmacogenomics J 2008; 8: 365-74.
132. Mallal S, Phillips E, Carosi G, Molina JM, Workman C, Tomazic J, Jägel-Guedes E, Rugina S, Kozyrev O, Cid JF, Hay P, Nolan D, Hughes S, Hughes A, Ryan S, Fitch N, Thorborn D, Benbow A, PREDICT-1 Study Team. HLA-B*5701 screening for hypersensitivity to abacavir. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 568-79.
133. Rauch A, Nolan D, Thurnheer C, Fux CA, Cavassini M, Chave JP, Opravil M, Phillips E, Mallal S, Furrer H, Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Refining abacavir hypersensitivity diagnoses using a structured clinical assessment and genetic testing in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Antivir Ther 2008; 13: 1019-28.
134. Saag M, Balu R, Phillips E, Brachman P, Martorell C, Burman W, Stancil B, Mosteller M, Brothers C, Wannamaker P, Hughes A, Sutherland-Phillips D, Mallal S, Shaefer M, Study of Hypersensitivity to Abacavir and Pharmacogenetic Evaluation Study Team. High sensitivity of human leukocyte antigen-b*5701 as a marker for immunologically confirmed abacavir hypersensitivity in white and black patients. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: 1111-8.
135. Aberg JA, Kaplan JE, Libman H, Emmanuel P, Anderson JR, Stone VE, Oleske JM, Currier JS, Gallant JE, HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Primary care guidelines for the management of persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus: 2009 update by the HIV medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49: 651-81.
136. Antinori A, Marcotullio S, Ammassari A, Andreoni M, Angarano G, Carosi G, Cinque P, 'Arminio Monforte A, Di Perri G, Ensoli B, Ferrazzi E, Galli M, Mastroianni C, Matteelli A, Mazzotta F, Moroni M, Palù G, Puoti M, Puro V, Rizzardini G, Sagnelli E, Suter F, Vella S, Lazzarin A, Italian HIV Guidelines Working Group. Italian guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents and the diagnostic-clinical management of HIV-1 infected persons. New Microbiol 2011; 34: 109-46.
137. Daly AK, Donaldson PT, Bhatnagar P, Shen Y, Pe'er I, Floratos A, Daly MJ, Goldstein DB, John S, Nelson MR, Graham J, Park BK, Dillon JF, Bernal W, Cordell HJ, Pirmohamed M, Aithal GP, Day CP, DILIGEN Study, International SAE Consortium. HLA-B*5701 genotype is a major determinant of drug-induced liver injury due to flucloxacillin. Nat Genet 2009; 41: 816-9.
138. Meckley LM, Neumann PJ. Personalized medicine: factors influencing reimbursement. Health Policy 2010; 94: 91-100.
139. Bonter K, Desjardins C, Currier N, Pun J, Ashbury FD. Personalised medicine in Canada: a survey of adoption and practice in oncology, cardiology and family medicine. BMJ Open 2011; 1: e000110. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2011-000110.
140. Haga SB, O'Daniel JM, Tindall GM, Lipkus IR, Agans R. Survey of US public attitudes toward pharmacogenetic testing. Pharmacogenomics J 2012; 12: 197-204.
141. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Decision memo for pharmacogenomic testing for warfarin response. Available at http://www.cms.gov/medicare-coverage-database/details/nca-decision-memo.aspx?NCAId=224 (last accessed 3 August 2009).
142. Flockhart DA, O'Kane D, Williams MS, Watson MS, on behalf of the ACMG Working Group on Pharmacogenomic Testing of CYP2C9, VKORC1 Alleles for Warfarin Use. Pharmacogenetic testing of CYP2C9 and VKORC1 alleles for warfarin. Genet Med 2008; 10: 139-50.
143. California Technology Assessment Forum. Use of genetic testing to guide the initiation of warfarin therapy: a technology assessment. 2008. Available at http://www.ctaf.org/content/general/detail/814. (last accessed 12 January 2012).
144. Patrick AR, Avorn J, Choudhry NK. Cost-effectiveness of genotype-guided warfarin dosing for patients with atrial fibrillation. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes 2009; 2: 429-36.
145. Epstein RS, Frueh FW, Geren D, Hummer D, McKibbin S, O'Connor S, Randhawa G, Zelman B. Payer perspectives on pharmacogenomics testing and drug development. Pharmacogenomics 2009; 10: 149-51.
146. Evans BJ. Finding a liability-free space in which personalized medicine can bloom. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2007; 82: 461-5.
147. Evans BJ. What will it take to reap the clinical benefits of pharmacogenomics? Food Drug Law J 2006; 61: 753-94.
148. Marchant GE, Campos-Outcalt DE, Lindor RA. Physician liability: the next big thing for personalized medicine? Per Med 2011; 8: 457-67.
149. Nebert DW. Given the complexity of the human genome, can 'personalised medicine' or 'individualised drug therapy' ever be achieved? Hum Genomics 2009; 3: 299-300.
150. Llerena A, Michel G, Jeannesson E, Wong S, Manolopoulos VG, Hockett RD, Boubekeur K, Siest G, Beaune P, Haefliger C, Arnold HP, Junien C, Petrovic N, Molloy R, Bekers O, Donnelly C, Arens HJ, Kaput J, McComb J. Third Santorini conference pharmacogenomics workshop report: 'Pharmacogenomics at the crossroads: what else than good science will be needed for the field to become part of Personalized Medicine?'. Clin Chem Lab Med 2007; 45: 843-50.
151. Higgs JE, Andrews J, Gurwitz D, Payne K, Newman W. Pharmacogenetics education in British medical schools. Genomic Med 2008; 2: 101-5.
152. Zopf Y, Rabe C, Neubert A, Gassmann KG, Rascher W, Hahn EG, Brune K, Dormann H. Women encounter ADRs more often than do men. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2008; 64: 999-1004.
153. Nicolson TJ, Mellor HR, Roberts RRA. Gender differences in drug toxicity. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2010; 31: 108-14.
154. Holbrook A, Wright M, Sung M, Ribic C, Baker S. Statin-associated rhabdomyolysis: is there a dose-response relationship? Can J Cardiol 2011; 27: 146-51.
155. Soldin OP, Chung SH, Mattison DR. Sex differences in drug disposition. J Biomed Biotechnol 2011; 2011: 187103. DOI: 10.1155/2011/187103.
156. Alderman CP, Hundertmark JD, Soetratma TW. Interaction of serotonin re-uptake inhibitors with perhexiline. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 1997; 31: 601-3.
157. Nyfort-Hansen K. Perhexiline toxicity related to citalopram use. Med J Aust 2002; 176: 560-1.
158. Mannheimer B, Eliasson E. Drug-drug interactions that reduce the formation of pharmacologically active metabolites: a poorly understood problem in clinical practice. J Intern Med 2010; 268: 540-8.
159. Preskorn SH, Shah R, Neff M, Golbeck AL, Choi J. The potential for clinically significant drug-drug interactions involving the CYP 2D6 system: effects with fluoxetine and paroxetine versus sertraline. J Psychiatr Pract 2007; 13: 5-12.
160. Nebert DW, Zhang G, Vesell ES. From human genetics and genomics to pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics: past lessons, future directions. Drug Metab Rev 2008; 40: 187-224.