Recent progress in interfacial tissue engineering approaches for osteochondral defects

Annals of Biomedical Engineering

Volumn 40, Issue 8, 2012, Pages 1628-1640

  Castro, Nathan J ^a   Hacking, S Adam ^b   Zhang, Lijie Grace ^a  

^a The George Washington University   (United States)

^b MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Biomimetic; Bone; Cartilage; Interface; Nanotechnology; Osteochondral; Tissue engineering

Indexed keywords

INTERFACIAL TISSUES; MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES; OSTEOCHONDRAL; OSTEOCHONDRAL DEFECTS; POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS; RECENT PROGRESS;

BIOMIMETICS; BONE; CARTILAGE; INTERFACES (MATERIALS); MANUFACTURE; NANOTECHNOLOGY; SCAFFOLDS; TISSUE; TISSUE ENGINEERING;

SCAFFOLDS (BIOLOGY);

ANIMAL; BONE DISEASE; CHONDROPATHY; HUMAN; METHODOLOGY; NANOTECHNOLOGY; REVIEW; TISSUE ENGINEERING;

ANIMALS; BONE DISEASES; CARTILAGE DISEASES; HUMANS; NANOTECHNOLOGY; TISSUE ENGINEERING;

EID: 84864532793     PISSN: 00906964     EISSN: 15739686     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10439-012-0605-5     Document Type: Review

References (125)

1. Aaron, R. K., A. H. Skolnick, S. E. Reinert, and D. M. Ciombor. Arthroscopic debridement for osteoarthritis of the knee. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 88:936-943, 2006.
2. Aigner, T., and H. A. Kim. Apoptosis and cellular vitality: Issues in osteoarthritic cartilage degeneration. Arthritis Rheum. 46:1986-1996, 2002.
3. Andriamanalijaona, R., E. Duval, M. Raoudi, S. Lecourt, J. T. Vilquin, J. P. Marolleau, J. P. Pujol, P. Galera, and K. Boumediene. Differentiation potential of human muscle-derived cells towards chondrogenic phenotype in alginate beads culture. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 16:1509-1518, 2008.
4. Arokoski, J. P. A., J. S. Jurvelin, U. Väätäinen, and H. J. Helminen. Normal and pathological adaptations of articular cartilage to joint loading. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 10:186-198, 2000.
5. Beachley, V., and X. Wen. Effect of electrospinning parameters on the nanofiber diameter and length. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 29:663-668, 2009.
6. Boland, T., T. Xu, B. Damon, and X. Cui. Application of inkjet printing to tissue engineering. Biotechnol. J. 1:910-917, 2006.
7. Boudriot, U., R. Dersch, A. Greiner, and J. H. Wendorff. Electrospinning approaches toward scaffold engineering-A brief overview. Artif. Organs 30:785-792, 2006.
8. Brehm, W., B. Aklin, T. Yamashita, F. Rieser, T. Trub, R. P. Jakob, and P. Mainil-Varlet. Repair of superficial osteochondral defects with an autologous scaffold-free cartilage construct in a caprine model: Implantation method and short-Term results. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 14:1214-1226, 2006.
9. Buckwalter, J. A., J. Martin, and H. J. Mankin. Synovial joint degeneration and the syndrome of osteoarthritis. Instr. Course Lect. 49:481-489, 2000.
10. Castro, N., P. Goldstein, and M. N. Cooke. Synthesis and manufacture of photocrosslinkable poly(caprolactone)-based three-dimensional scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. Adv. Biosci. Biotechnol. 2:167-173, 2011.
11. Castro, N., J. Umanzor-Alvarez, L. Zhang, and M. Keidar. Nanobiotechnology and nanostructured therapeutic delivery systems. Recent Pat. Biomed. Eng. 5:29-40, 2012.
12. Chen, Y., B. Bilgen, R. A. Pareta, A. J. Myles, H. Fenniri, D. M. Ciombor, R. K. Aaron, and T. J. Webster. Selfassembled rosette nanotube/hydrogel composites for cartilage tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. Part C 16:1233-1243, 2010.
13. Chen, J., H. Chen, P. Li, H. Diao, S. Zhu, L. Dong, R. Wang, T. Guo, J. Zhao, and J. Zhang. Simultaneous regeneration of articular cartilage and subchondral bone in vivo using MSCs induced by a spatially controlled gene delivery system in bilayered integrated scaffolds. Biomaterials 32:4793-4805, 2011.
14. Chen, D., X. Zhang, Y. He, J. Lu, H. Shen, Y. Jiang, C. Zhang, and B. Zeng. Co-culturing mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow and periosteum enhances osteogenesis and neovascularization of tissue-engineered bone. J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med., 2011.
15. Cheuk, Y. C., M. W. N. Wong, K. M. Lee, and S. C. Fu. Use of allogeneic scaffold-free chondrocyte pellet in repair of osteochondral defect in a rabbit model. J. Orthop. Res. 29:1343-1350, 2011.
16. Chim, H., D. W. Hutmacher, A. M. Chou, A. L. Oliveira, R. L. Reis, T. C. Lim, and J. T. Schantz. A comparative analysis of scaffold material modifications for load-bearing applications in bone tissue engineering. Int. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg. 35:928-934, 2006.
17. Choi, Y. S., S. M. Lim, H. C. Shin, C. W. Lee, S. L. Kim, and D. I. Kim. Chondrogenesis of human periosteum-derived progenitor cells in atelocollagen. Biotechnol. Lett. 29:323-329, 2007.
18. Choi, Y. S., S. E. Noh, S. M. Lim, C. W. Lee, C. S. Kim, M. W. Im, M. H. Lee, and D. I. Kim. Multipotency and growth characteristic of periosteum-derived progenitor cells for chondrogenic, osteogenic, and adipogenic differentiation. Biotechnol. Lett. 30:593-601, 2008.
19. Chuckpaiwong, B., E. M. Berkson, and G. H. Theodore. Microfracture for osteochondral lesions of the ankle: outcome analysis and outcome predictors of 105 cases. Arthroscopy 24:106-112, 2008.
20. Cohen, D. L., J. I. Lipton, L. J. Bonassar, and H. Lipson. Additive manufacturing for in situ repair of osteochondral defects. Biofabrication 2:035004, 2010.
21. Cooke, M. N., J. P. Fisher, D. Dean, C. Rimnac, and A. G. Mikos. Use of stereolithography to manufacture critical-sized 3D biodegradable scaffolds for bone ingrowth. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B 64B:65-69, 2003.
22. de Mara, C. S., A. S. Duarte, A. R. Sartori-Cintra, A. C. Luzo, S. T. Saad, and I. B. Coimbra. Chondrogenesis from umbilical cord blood cells stimulated with BMP-2 and BMP-6. Rheumatol. Int. 2012.
23. Dormer, N., C. Berkland, and M. Detamore. Emerging techniques in stratified designs and continuous gradients for tissue engineering of interfaces. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 38:2121-2141, 2010.
24. Dormer, N. H., M. Singh, L. Zhao, N. Mohan, C. J. Berkland, and M. S. Detamore. Osteochondral interface regeneration of the rabbit knee with macroscopic gradients of bioactive signals. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A 100:162-170, 2012.
25. Duan, B., W. L. Cheung, and M. Wang. Optimized fabrication of Ca-P/PHBV nanocomposite scaffolds via selective laser sintering for bone tissue engineering. Biofabrication 3:015001, 2011.
26. Elder, B. D., and K. A. Athanasiou. Systematic assessment of growth factor treatment on biochemical and biomechanical properties of engineered articular cartilage constructs. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 17:114-123, 2009.
27. Erisken, C., D. M. Kalyon, and H. Wang. Functionally graded electrospun polycaprolactone and beta-Tricalcium phosphate nanocomposites for tissue engineering applications. Biomaterials 29:4065-4073, 2008.
28. Ethier, C. R., and C. A. Simmons. Introductory Biomechanics-From Cells to Organisms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, 459 pp.
29. Eyre, D. Collagen of articular cartilage. Arthritis Res. 4:30-35, 2002.
30. Eyre, D. R., M. A. Weis, and J. J. Wu. Articular cartilage collagen: An irreplaceable framework? Eur. Cell. Mater. 12:57-63, 2006.
31. Findlay, D. M. Vascular pathology and osteoarthritis. Rheumatology 46:1763-1768, 2007.
32. Fong, C. Y., A. Subramanian, K. Gauthaman, J. Venugopal, A. Biswas, S. Ramakrishna, and A. Bongso. Human umbilical cord Wharton's jelly stem cells undergo enhanced chondrogenic differentiation when grown on nanofibrous scaffolds and in a sequential two-stage culture medium environment. Stem Cell Rev. 8:195-209, 2012.
33. Freeman, M. A. R. Adult Articular Cartilage. Tunbridge Wells: Pitman Medical, 590 pp, 1979.
34. Furukawa, K. S., K. Imura, T. Tateishi, and T. Ushida. Scaffold-free cartilage by rotational culture for tissue engineering. J. Biotechnol. 133:134-145, 2008.
35. Gay, I. C., S. Chen, and M. MacDougall. Isolation and characterization of multipotent human periodontal ligament stem cells. Orthod. Craniofac. Res. 10:149-160, 2007.
36. Goldring, M. B., and S. R. Goldring. Articular cartilage and subchondral bone in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1192:230-237, 2010.
37. Gravel, M., T. Gross, R. Vago, and M. Tabrizian. Responses of mesenchymal stem cell to chitosan-coralline composites microstructured using coralline as gas forming agent. Biomaterials 27:1899-1906, 2006.
38. Gravel, M., R. Vago, and M. Tabrizian. Use of natural coralline biomaterials as reinforcing and gas-forming agent for developing novel hybrid biomatrices: Microarchitectural and mechanical studies. Tissue Eng. 12:589-600, 2006.
39. Guillotin, B., and F. Guillemot. Cell patterning technologies for organotypic tissue fabrication. Trends Biotechnol. 29:183-190, 2011.
40. Guo, X., H. Park, S. Young, J. D. Kretlow, J. J. Van Den Beucken, L. S. Baggett, Y. Tabata, F. K. Kasper, A. G. Mikos, and J. A. Jansen. Repair of osteochondral defects with biodegradable hydrogel composites encapsulating marrow mesenchymal stem cells in a rabbit model. Acta Biomater. 6:39-47, 2010.
41. Hamid, A. A., R. B. Idrus, A. B. Saim, S. Sathappan, and K. H. Chua. Characterization of human adipose-derived stem cells and expression of chondrogenic genes during induction of cartilage differentiation. Clinics 67:99-106, 2012.
42. Hootman, J. M., and C. G. Helmick. Projections of US prevalence of arthritis and associated activity limitations. Arthritis Rheum. 54:226-229, 2006.
43. Hu, J. Chondrocyte self-Assembly and culture in bioreactors. In: Department of Bioengineering, Houston: Rice University, 2005. p. 276.
44. Huber, M., S. Trattnig, and F. Lintner. Anatomy, biochemistry, and physiology of articular cartilage. Invest. Radiol. 35:573-580, 2000.
45. Hutmacher, D. W. Scaffolds in tissue engineering bone and cartilage. Biomaterials 21:2529-2543, 2000.
46. Hwang, N. S., S. G. Im, P. B. Wu, D. A. Bichara, X. Zhao, M. A. Randolph, R. Langer, and D. G. Anderson. Chondrogenic priming adipose-mesenchymal stem cells for cartilage tissue regeneration. Pharm. Res. 28:1395-1405, 2011.
47. Im, O., J. Li, M. Wang, L. Zhang, and M. Keidar. Biomimetic 3D nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite and magnetically synthesized SWCNT chitosan nanocomposite for bone regeneration. Int. J. Nanomed. 7:2087-2099, 2012.
48. Imhof, H., I. Sulzbacher, S. Grampp, C. Czerny, S. Youssefzadeh, and F. Kainberger. Subchondral bone and cartilage disease-A rediscovered functional unit. Invest. Radiol. 35:581-588, 2000.
49. Jiang, C. C., H. Chiang, C. J. Liao, Y. J. Lin, T. F. Kuo, C. S. Shieh, Y. Y. Huang, and R. S. Tuan. Repair of porcine articular cartilage defect with a biphasic osteochondral composite. J. Orthop. Res. 25:1277-1290, 2007.
50. Jin, C. Z., J. H. Cho, B. H. Choi, L. M. Wang, M. S. Kim, S. R. Park, J. H. Yun, H. J. Oh, and B. H. Min. The maturity of tissue-engineered cartilage in vitro affects the repairability for osteochondral defect. Tissue Eng. Part A 17:3057-3065, 2011.
51. Khanarian, N. T., J. Jiang, L. Q. Wan, V. C. Mow, and H. H. Lu. A hydrogel-mineral composite scaffold for osteochondral interface tissue engineering. Tissue Eng. Part A 18:533-545, 2011.
52. Kim, K., D. Dean, J. Wallace, R. Breithaupt, A. G. Mikos, and J. P. Fisher. The influence of stereolithographic scaffold architecture and composition on osteogenic signal expression with rat bone marrow stromal cells. Biomaterials 32:3750-3763, 2011.
53. Kim, S. S., M. Sun Park, O. Jeon, C. Yong Choi, and B. S. Kim. Poly(lactide-co-glycolide)/hydroxyapatite composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Biomaterials 27:1399-1409, 2006.
54. Knudson, C. B., and W. Knudson. Cartilage proteoglycans. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 12:69-78, 2001.
55. Kon, E., M. Delcogliano, G. Filardo, M. Busacca, A. Di Martino, and M. Marcacci. Novel nano-composite multilayered biomaterial for osteochondral regeneration: A pilot clinical trial. Am. J. Sports Med. 39:1180-1190, 2011.
56. Kubo, S., G. M. Cooper, T. Matsumoto, J. A. Phillippi, K. A. Corsi, A. Usas, L. Guangheng, F. H. Fu, and J. Huard. Blocking vascular endothelial growth factor with soluble Flt-1 improves the chondrogenic potential of mouse skeletal muscle-derived stem cells. Arthritis Rheum. 60:155-165, 2009.
57. Langer, R., and J. P. Vacanti. Tissue engineering. Science 260:920-926, 1993.
58. Langsjo, T. K., M. Hyttinen, A. Pelttari, K. Kiraly, J. Arokoski, and H. J. Helminen. Electron microscopic stereological study of collagen fibrils in bovine articular cartilage: Volume and surface Densities are best obtained indirectly (from length Densities and diameters) using isotropic uniform random sampling. J. Anat. 195(Pt 2): 281-293, 1999.
59. Langsjö , T. K. M. Hyttinen A. Pelttari K. Kiraly J. Arokoski H. J. Helminen Electron microscopic stereological study of collagen fibrils in bovine articular cartilage: Volume and surface Densities are best obtained indirectly (from length Densities and diameters) using isotropic uniform random sampling J. Anat. 195: 281-293, 1999.
60. Li, W. J., R. Tuli, C. Okafor, A. Derfoul, K. G. Danielson, D. J. Hall, and R. S. Tuan. A three-dimensional nanofibrous scaffold for cartilage tissue engineering using human mesenchymal stem cells. Biomaterials 26:599-609, 2005.
61. Li, G., B. Zheng, L. B. Meszaros, J. B. Vella, A. Usas, T. Matsumoto, and J. Huard. IDentification and characterization of chondrogenic progenitor cells in the fascia of postnatal skeletal muscle. J. Mol. Cell. Biol. 3:369-377, 2011.
62. Lim, J. Y. Topographic control of cell response to synthetic materials. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med. 6:365-370, 2009.
63. Lin,H. R., C. J.Kuo, C.Y.Yang, S. Y. Shaw, and Y. J.Wu. Preparation ofmacroporous biodegradable PLGAscaffolds for cell attachment with the use of mixed salts as porogen additives. J. Biomed.Mater. Res. 63:271-279, 2002.
64. Linh, N. T., and B. T. Lee. Electrospinning of polyvinyl alcohol/gelatin nanofiber composites and cross-linking for bone tissue engineering application. J. Biomater. Appl., 2011.
65. Lu, H. H., S. D. Subramony, M. K. Boushell, and X. Z. Zhang. Tissue engineering strategies for the regeneration of orthopedic interfaces. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 38:2142-2154, 2010.
66. Lu, S. H., A. H. Yang, C. F. Wei, H. S. Chiang, and M. B. Chancellor. Multi-potent differentiation of human purified muscle-derived cells: Potential for tissue regeneration. BJU Int. 105:1174-1180, 2010.
67. Ma, D. Y., L. L. Ren, Y. P. Liu, F. L. Chen, J. R. Zhang, Z. X. Xue, and T. Q. Mao. Engineering scaffold-free bone tissue using bone marrow stromal cell sheets. J. Orthop. Res. 28:697-702, 2010.
68. Maeda, S., T. Fujitomo, T. Okabe, S. Wakitani, and M. Takagi. Shrinkage-free preparation of scaffold-free cartilage-like disk-shaped cell sheet using human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 111:489-492, 2011.
69. Majore, I., P. Moretti, F. Stahl, R. Hass, and C. Kasper. Growth and differentiation properties of mesenchymal stromal cell populations derived from whole human umbilical cord. Stem Cell Rev. 7:17-31, 2011.
70. Martinez, E., A. Lagunas, C. A. Mills, S. Rodriguez-Segui, M. Estevez, S. Oberhansl, J. Comelles, and J. Samitier. Stem cell differentiation by functionalized micro-And nanostructured surfaces. Nanomedicine 4:65-82, 2009.
71. Matsumoto, T., G. M. Cooper, B. Gharaibeh, L. B. Meszaros, L. Guangheng, A. Usas, F. H. Fu, and J. Huard. Cartilage repair in a rat model of osteoarthritis through intraarticular transplantation of muscle-derived stem cells expressing bone morphogenetic protein 4 and soluble Flt-1. Arthritis Rheum. 60:1390-1405, 2009.
72. Matsumoto, T., G. M. Cooper, B. Gharaibeh, L. B. Meszaros, G. Li, A. Usas, F. H. Fu, and J. Huard. Blocking VEGF as a potential approach to improve cartilage healing after osteoarthritis. J. Musculoskelet. Neuronal Interact. 8:316-317, 2008.
73. Mente, P. L., and J. L. Lewis. Elastic modulus of calcified cartilage is an order of magnitude less than that of subchondral bone. J. Orthop. Res. 12:637-647, 1994.
74. Miller, E. D., K. Li, T. Kanade, L. E. Weiss, L. M. Walker, and P. G. Campbell. Spatially directed guidance of stem cell population migration by immobilized patterns of growth factors. Biomaterials 32:2775-2785, 2011.
75. Mondrinos, M. J., R. Dembzynski, L. Lu, V. K. C. Byrapogu, D. M. Wootton, P. I. Lelkes, and J. Zhou. Porogen-based solid freeform fabrication of polycaprolactone-calcium phosphate scaffolds for tissue engineering. Biomaterials 27:4399-4408, 2006.
76. Mouthuy, P. A., H. Ye, J. Triffitt, G. Oommen, and Z. Cui. Physico-chemical characterization of functional electrospun scaffolds for bone and cartilage tissue engineering. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part H 224:1401-1414, 2010.
77. Murdoch, A. D., L. M. Grady, M. P. Ablett, T. Katopodi, R. S. Meadows, and T. E. Hardingham. Chondrogenic differentiation of human bone marrow stem cells in transwell cultures: generation of Scaffold-free cartilage. Stem Cells 25:2786-2796, 2007.
78. Nakamura, A., M. Akahane, H. Shigematsu, M. Tadokoro, Y. Morita, H. Ohgushi, Y. Dohi, T. Imamura, and Y. Tanaka. Cell sheet transplantation of cultured mesenchymal stem cells enhances bone formation in a rat nonunion model. Bone 46:418-424, 2010.
79. Nguyen, L. H., A. K. Kudva, N. S. Saxena, and K. Roy. Engineering articular cartilage with spatially-varying matrix composition and mechanical properties from a single stem cell population using a multi-layered hydrogel. Biomaterials 32:6946-6952, 2011.
80. Niyama, K., N. Ide, K. Onoue, T. Okabe, S. Wakitani, and M. Takagi. Construction of osteochondral-like tissue graft combining beta-Tricalcium phosphate block and scaffold-free centrifuged chondrocyte cell sheet. J. Orthop. Sci. 16:613-621, 2011.
81. Ofek, G., C. M. Revell, J. C. Hu, D. D. Allison, K. J. Grande-Allen, and K. A. Athanasiou. Matrix development in self-Assembly of articular cartilage. PLoS ONE 3:e2795, 2008.
82. Ogawa, R., and S. Mizuno. Cartilage regeneration using adipose-derived stem cells. Curr. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 5:129-132, 2010.
83. Oliveira, J. M., M. T. Rodrigues, S. S. Silva, P. B. Malafaya, M. E. Gomes, C. A. Viegas, I. R. Dias, J. T. Azevedo, J. F. Mano, and R. L. Reis. Novel hydroxyapatite/ chitosan bilayered scaffold for osteochondral tissueengineering applications: Scaffold design and its performance when seeded with goat bone marrow stromal cells. Biomaterials 27:6123-6137, 2006.
84. Ott, M. K., N. Ferraz, J. Carlsson, and J. Hong. Influence of nanoporesize on platelet adhesion and activation. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 19:3115-3121, 2008.
85. Ozkan, S., D. M. Kalyon, and X. Yu. Functionally graded beta-TCP/PCL nanocomposite scaffolds: In vitro evaluation with human fetal osteoblast cells for bone tissue engineering. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A 92:1007-1018, 2010.
86. Park, K., J. Huang, F. Azar, R. L. Jin, B. H. Min, D. K. Han, and K. Hasty. Scaffold-free, engineered porcine cartilage construct for cartilage defect repair-in vitro and in vivo study. Artif. Organs 30:586-596, 2006.
87. Pham, Q. P., U. Sharma, and A. G. Mikos. Electrospinning of polymeric nanofibers for tissue engineering applications: A review. Tissue Eng. 12:1197-1211, 2006.
88. Reddi, A. H., R. Gay, S. Gay, and E. J. Miller. Transitions in collagen types during matrix-induced cartilage, bone, and bone-marrow formation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 74:5589-5592, 1977.
89. Redler, I., V. C. Mow, M. L. Zimny, and J. Mansell. The ultrastructure and biomechanical significance of the tidemark of articular cartilage. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 112:357-362, 1975.
90. Reignier, J., and M. A. Huneault. Preparation of interconnected poly(epsilon-caprolactone) porous scaffolds by a combination of polymer and salt particulate leaching. Polymer 47:4703-4717, 2006.
91. Responte, D. J., R. M. Natoli, and K. A. Athanasiou. Collagens of articular cartilage: Structure, function, and importance in tissue engineering. Crit. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 35:363-411, 2007.
92. Rizzi, S. C., D. T. Heath, A. G. A. Coombes, N. Bock, M. Textor, and S. Downes. Biodegradable polymer/ hydroxyapatite composites: Surface analysis and initial attachment of human osteoblasts. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 55:475-486, 2001.
93. Robert, H. Chondral repair of the knee joint using mosaicplasty. Orthop. Traumatol. Surg. Res. 97:418-429, 2011.
94. Roberts, S. J., L. Geris, G. Kerckhofs, E. Desmet, J. Schrooten, and F. P. Luyten. The combined bone forming capacity of human periosteal derived cells and calcium phosphates. Biomaterials 32:4393-4405, 2011.
95. Ruckh, T. T., K. Kumar, M. J. Kipper, and K. C. Popat. Osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells on poly(epsilon-caprolactone) nanofiber scaffolds. Acta Biomater. 6:2949-2959, 2010.
96. Salgado, A. J., J. T. Oliveira, A. J. Pedro, and R. L. Reis. Adult stem cells in bone and cartilage tissue engineering. Curr. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 1:345-364, 2006.
97. Schantz, J. T., A. Brandwood, D. W. Hutmacher, H. L. Khor, and K. Bittner. Osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal progenitor cells in computer designed fibrin-polymer-ceramic scaffolds manufactured by fused deposition modeling. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 16:807-819, 2005.
98. Schinagl, R. M., D. Gurskis, A. C. Chen, and R. L. Sah. Depth-depenDent confined compression modulus of fullthickness bovine articular cartilage. J. Orthop. Res. 15:499-506, 1997.
99. Scotti, C., D. Wirz, F. Wolf, D. J. Schaefer, V. Burgin, A. U. Daniels, V. Valderrabano, C. Candrian, M. Jakob, I. Martin, and A. Barbero. Engineering human cell-based, functionally integrated osteochondral grafts by biological bonding of engineered cartilage tissues to bony scaffolds. Biomaterials 31:2252-2259, 2010.
100. Shetty, P., K. Cooper, and C. Viswanathan. Comparison of proliferative and multilineage differentiation potentials of cord matrix, cord blood, and bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. Asian J. Transfus. Sci. 4:14-24, 2010.
101. Shuai, C., C. Gao, Y. Nie, H. Hu, Y. Zhou, and S. Peng. Structure and properties of nano-hydroxyapatite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering with a selective laser sintering system. Nanotechnology 22:285703, 2011.
102. Streicher, R. M., M. Schmidt, and S. Fiorito. Nanosurfaces and nanostructures for artificial orthopedic implants. Nanomedicine 2:861-874, 2007.
103. Tavazoie, S. F., C. Alarcon, T. Oskarsson, D. Padua, Q. Wang, P. D. Bos, W. L. Gerald, and J. Massague. Endogenous human microRNAs that suppress breast cancer metastasis. Nature 451:147-152, 2008.
104. Tellis, B. C., J. A. Szivek, C. L. Bliss, D. S. Margolis, R. K. Vaidyanathan, and P. Calvert. Trabecular scaffolds created using micro CT guided fused deposition modeling. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 28:171-178, 2009.
105. Temenoff, J. S., and A. G. Mikos. Review: tissue engineering for regeneration of articular cartilage. Biomaterials 21:431-440, 2000.
106. Temenoff, J. S., and P. J. Yang. Engineering orthopedic tissue interfaces. Tissue Eng. Part B 15:127-141, 2009.
107. Vaquette, C., C. Frochot, R. Rahouadj, and X. Wang. An innovative method to obtain porous PLLA scaffolds with highly spherical and interconnected pores. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B 86:9-17, 2008.
108. Walboomers, X. F., L. Prodanov, J. te Riet, E. Lamers, M. Domanski, R. Luttge, J. J. W. A. Van Loon, and J. A. Jansen. The interaction between nanoscale surface features and mechanical loading and its effect on osteoblast-like cells behavior. Biomaterials 31:7758-7765, 2010.
109. Wang, W., B. Li, J. Yang, L. Xin, Y. Li, H. Yin, Y. Qi, Y. Jiang, H. Ouyang, and C. Gao. The restoration of fullthickness cartilage defects with BMSCs and TGF-beta 1 loaded PLGA/fibrin gel constructs. Biomaterials 31:8964-8973, 2010.
110. Wang, X., E. Wenk, X. Zhang, L. Meinel, G. Vunjak-Novakovic, and D. L. Kaplan. Growth factor gradients via microsphere delivery in biopolymer scaffolds for osteochondral tissue engineering. J. Controlled Release 134:81-90, 2009.
111. 1Watanabe, H., and K. Kimata. The roles of proteoglycans for cartilage. Clin. Calcium 16:1029-1033, 2006.
112. Wei, Y., X. Sun, W. Wang, and Y. Hu. Adipose-derived stem cells and chondrogenesis. Cytotherapy 9:712-716, 2007.
113. Weiss, C., L. Rosenberg, and A. J. Helfet. An ultrastructural study of normal young adult human articular cartilage. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 50:663-674, 1968.
114. Wu, X., S. Wang, B. Chen, and X. An. Muscle-derived stem cells: Isolation, characterization, differentiation, and application in cell and gene therapy. Cell Tissue Res. 340:549-567, 2010.
115. Xu, T., J. Rohozinski, W. Zhao, E. C. Moorefield, A. Atala, and J. J. Yoo. Inkjet-mediated gene transfection into living cells combined with targeted delivery. Tissue Eng. Part A 15:95-101, 2009.
116. Zhang, L., Y. Chen, J. Rodriguez, H. Fenniri, and T. J. Webster. Biomimetic helical rosette nanotubes and nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite coatings on titanium for improving orthopedic implants. Int. J. Nanomed. 3:323-333, 2008.
117. Zhang, L., U. D. Hemraz, H. Fenniri, and T. J. Webster. Tuning cell adhesion on titanium with osteogenic rosette nanotubes. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. PartA95:550-563, 2010.
118. Zhang, L., J. Hu, and K. A. Athanasiou. The role of tissue engineering in articular cartilage repair and regeneration. Crit. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 37:1-57, 2009.
119. Zhang, L., F. Rakotondradany, A. J. Myles, H. Fenniri, and T. J. Webster. Arginine-glycine-Aspartic acid modified rosette nanotube-hydrogel composites for bone tissue engineering. Biomaterials 30:1309-1320, 2009.
120. Zhang, L., S. Ramsaywack, H. Fenniri, and T. J. Webster. Enhanced osteoblast adhesion on self-Assembled nano-structured hydrogel scaffolds. Tissue Eng. Part A 14:1353-1364, 2008.
121. Zhang, L., J. Rodriguez, J. Raez, A. J. Myles, H. Fenniri, and T. J. Webster. Biologically inspired rosette nanotubes and nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite hydrogel nanocomposites as improved bone substitutes. Nanotechnology 20:175101, 2009.
122. Zhang, L., S. Sirivisoot, G. Balasundaram, and T. J. Webster. Nanoengineering for bone tissue engineering. In: Micro and Nanoengineering of the Cell Microenvironment: Technologies and Applications, edited by A. Khademhosseini, J. Borenstein, M. Toner, and S. Takayama. Boston: Artech House, 2008, pp. 431-460.
123. Zhang, L., and T. J. Webster. Nanotechnology and nanomaterials: Promises for improved tissue regeneration. Nanotoday 4:66-80, 2009.
124. Zhou, W. Y., S. H. Lee, M. Wang, W. L. Cheung, and W.A. Y. Ip. Selective laser sintering of porous tissue engineering scaffolds from poly(L-lactide)/ carbonated hydroxyapatite nanocomposite microspheres. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 19:2535-2540, 2008.
125. Zscharnack, M., P. Hepp, R. Richter, T. Aigner, R. Schulz, J. Somerson, C. Josten, A. Bader, and B. Marquass. Repair of chronic osteochondral defects using predifferentiated mesenchymal stem cells in an ovine model. Am. J. Sports Med. 38:1857-1869, 2010.