Power, Influence, and Diversity in Organizations

The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

Volumn 639, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 49-70

  Lucas, Jeffrey W ^a   Baxter, Amy R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

Author keywords

diversity; influence; leadership; management; power; status

Indexed keywords

EID: 84862187094     PISSN: 00027162     EISSN: 15523349     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0002716211420231     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. Anderson, Cameron, Berdahl Jennifer L. 2002. The experience of power: Examining the effects of power on approach and inhibition tendencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83: 1362–77.
2. Anderson, Cameron, Adam D. Galinsky. 2006. Power, optimism, and risk-taking. European Journal of Social Psychology 36: 511–36.
3. Bales, Robert F. 1950. Interaction process analysis: A method for the study of small groups. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
4. Bargh, John A., Tanya L. Chartrand. 1999. The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist 54: 462–79.
5. Berger, Joseph, Bernard P. Cohen, and Morris Zelditch. 1972. Status characteristics and social interaction. New York, NY: Elsevier.
6. Berger, Joseph, M. Hamit Fisek, Robert Z. Norman, and Morris Zelditch Jr. 1977. Status characteristics and social interaction. New York, NY: Elsevier.
7. Berger, Joseph, Susan J. Rosenholtz, and Morris Zelditch Jr. 1980. Status organizing processes. Annual Review of Sociology 6:470–508.
8. Berger, Joseph, David G. Wagner, and Morris Zelditch Jr. 1985. Expectation states theory: Review and assessment. In Status, rewards, and influence, eds. Joseph Berger and Morris Zelditch Jr., 1–72. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
9. Berger, Joseph, and Murray Webster Jr. 2006. Expectations, status, and behavior. In Contemporary social psychological theories, ed. Peter J. Burke, 268–300. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
10. Bienenstock, Elisa Jayne, and Alison J. Bianchi. 2004. Activating performance expectations and status difference through gift exchange: Experimental results. Social Psychology Quarterly 67:310–18.
11. Biernat, Monica R., and D. Kobrynowicz. 1997. Gender- and race-based standards of competence: Lower minimum standards but higher ability standards for devalued groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72:544–57.
12. Bobo, Lawrence D., and Cybelle Fox. 2003. Race, racism, and discrimination: Bridging problems, methods and theory in social psychological research. Social Psychology Quarterly 66:319–32.
13. Bonacich, Phillip. 2002. The strength of weak power: A simulation study of network evolution. In The growth of social knowledge: Theory, simulation, and empirical research in group processes, eds. Jacek Szmatka, Michael J. Lovaglia, and Kynga Wysienska. Westport, CT: Praeger.
14. Brass, Daniel J., and Marlene E. Burkhardt. 1993. Potential power and power use: An investigation of structure and behavior. Academy of Management Journal 36:441–70.
15. Brauer, M. 2005. Reactions to norm transgressions in powerful and powerless groups. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society of Personality and Social Psychology, New Orleans, LA.
16. Brinol, Pablo, Carmen Valle, Derek D. Rucker, and A. Becerra. 2007. The effects of message recipients' power before and after persuasion: A self-validation analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93:1040–53.
17. Bruins, Jan, Naomi Ellemers, and Dick De Gilder. 1999. Power use and differential competence as determinants of subordinates' evaluative and behavioural responses in simulated organizations. European Journal of Social Psychology 29:843–70.
18. Bunderson, J. Stuart. 2003. Recognizing and utilizing expertise in work groups: A status characteristics perspective. Administrative Science Quarterly 48:557–91.
19. Butler, Dore, and Florence L. Geis. 1990. Nonverbal affect responses to male and female leaders: Implications for leadership. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58:48–59.
20. Carli, Linda L. 1991. Gender, status, and influence. Advances in Group Processes: Theory and Research 8:89–113.
21. CNN Money. 2006. The richest Americans in the almanac of American wealth.
22. CNN Money. 2010. Fortune 500 women CEOs.
23. Cohen, Bernard P., and Xuegueng Zhou. 1991. Status processes in enduring work groups. American Sociological Review 56:179–88.
24. Cohen, Elizabeth G., and Rachel A. Lotan. 1995. Producing equal-status interaction in the heterogeneous classroom. American Educational Research Journal 32:99–120.
25. Cook, Karen S., Richard M. Emerson, Mary R. Gillmore, and Toshio Yamagishi. 1983. The distribution of power in exchange networks: Theory and experimental results. American Journal of Sociology 89:275–305.
26. Dahl, Robert A. 1957. The concept of power. Behavioral Science 2:201–15.
27. Davies, Antony, and Thomas W. Cline. January/February 2005. The ROI on the MBA. BizEd, 42–45.
28. DiTomaso, Nancy, Corinne Post, and Rochelle Parks-Yancy. 2007. Workforce diversity and inequality: Power, status, and numbers. Annual Review of Sociology 33:473–501.
29. Eagly, Alice H., and Linda L. Carli. 2003. The female leadership advantage: An evaluation of the evidence. Leadership Quarterly 14:807–34.
30. Eagly, Alice H., Arjun Makhijani, and Bruce G. Klonsky. 1992. Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 111:3–22.
31. Emerson, Richard M. 1962. Power-dependence relations. American Sociological Review 27:21–41.
32. Emerson, Richard M. 1972. Exchange theory, part II: Exchange relations and networks. In Sociological theories in progress, vol. 2, eds. Joseph Berger, Morris Zelditch Jr., and Bo Anderson. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
33. Fox, Don W. 2006. Doing the right thing—Fiscal law tips: Dealing with conferences, coins, and the use of government resources. Entrepreneur.
34. Freeman, Catherine. 2004. Trends in educational equity for girls and women: 2004. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
35. French, John R. P., Jr., and Bertram Raven. 1959. The bases of social power. In Studies in social power, ed. Dorwin Cartwright, 150–67. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
36. Galinsky, Adam D., Deborah H. Gruenfeld, and Joe C. Magee. 2003. From power to action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85:453–66.
37. Galinsky, Adam D., Jennifer Jordan, and Niro Sivanathan. 2008. Harnessing power to capture leadership. In Leadership at the crossroads, ed. Joanna B. Cuilla. Westport, CT: Praeger.
38. Galinsky, Adam D., Joe C. Magee, M. Ena Inesi, and Deborah H. Gruenfeld. 2006. Power and perspectives not taken. Psychological Science 17:1068–74.
39. Georgesen, John C., and Monica J. Harris. 2000. The balance of power: Interpersonal consequences of differential power and expectations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26:1239–57.
40. Gibb, Cecil A. 1969. Leadership. In Handbook of social psychology, vol. 4, 2nd ed., eds. Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
41. Guinote, Ana. 2007. Power and goal pursuit. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 33:1076–87.
42. Heilman, Madeline E., Aaron S. Wallen, Daniella Fuchs, and Melinda M. Tamkins. 2004. Penalties for success: Reactions to women who succeed at male gender-typed tasks. Journal of Applied Psychology 89:416–27.
43. Hertzberg, Hendrik. 2 May 2011. Trumpery. New Yorker 87:21–22.
44. Hogg, Michael A. 2001. A social identity theory of leadership. Personality and Social Psychology Review 5:184–200.
45. Hogg, Michael A., and Deborah J. Terry. 2000. Social identity and self-categorization processes in organizational contexts. Academy of Management Review 25:121–40.
46. Horwitz, Sujin K., and Irwin B. Horwitz. 2007. The effects of team diversity on team outcomes: A metaanalytic review of team demography. Journal of Management 33:987–1015.
47. Johnson, Cathryn, Jody Clay-Warner, and Stephanie J. Funk. 1996. Effects of authority structures and gender on interaction in same-sex task groups. Social Psychology Quarterly 59:221–36.
48. Kalkhoff, Will, and Christopher Barnum. 2000. The effects of status-organizing and social identity processes on patterns of social influence. Social Psychology Quarterly 63:95–115.
49. Kalkhoff, Will, and Shane R. Thye. 2006. Expectation states theory and research: New observations from meta-analysis. Sociological Methods and Research 35:219–49.
50. Kelly, Michael, ed. 1994. Critique and power: Recasting the Foucault/Habermas debate. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
51. Keltner, Dacher, Deborah H. Gruenfeld, and Cameron Anderson. 2003. Power, approach, and inhibition. Psychological Review 110:265–285.
52. Knight, Jennifer L., Michelle R. Hebl, Jessica B. Foster, and Laura M. Mannix. 2003. Out of role? Out of luck: The influence of race and leadership status on performance appraisals. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies 9:85–93.
53. Lammers, Joris, and Diederik A. Stapel. 2009. How power influences moral thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 97:279–89.
54. Lang, Ilene, Arnold W. Donald, Carlos F. Orta, and J. D. Hokoyama. 2011. Missing pieces: Women and minorities on Fortune 500 boards. 2010 Alliance for Board Diversity Census. New York, NY: Catalyst.
55. Lawler, Edward J., Shane R. Thye, and Jeongkoo Yoon. 2008. Social exchange and micro social order. American Sociological Review 73:519–42.
56. Lee, Margaret T., and Richard Ofshe. 1981. The impact of behavioral style and status characteristics on social influence: A test of two competing theories. Social Psychology Quarterly 44:73–82.
57. Lovaglia, Michael J. 1999. Understanding network exchange theory. Advances in Group Processes 16:31–59.
58. Lovaglia, Michael J., Jeffrey W. Lucas, Jeffrey A. Houser, Shane R. Thye, and Barry Markovsky. 1998. Status processes and mental ability test scores. American Journal of Sociology 104:195–228.
59. Lovaglia, Michael J., Jeffrey W. Lucas, Christabel L. Rogalin, and Abigail Darwin. 2006. Power, status, and leadership in diverse organizations: From basic research to program development. In Advances in group processes, vol. 23, eds. Shane R. Thye and Edward Lawler, 183–206. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
60. Lovaglia, Michael J., Elizabeth A. Mannix, Charles D. Samuelson, Jane Sell, and Rick K. Wilson. 2005. Conflict, power, and status in groups. In Theories of small groups: Interdisciplinary perspectives, eds. Marshall Scott Poole and Andrea B. Hollingshead, 139–84. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
61. Lovaglia, Michael J., Robb Willer, and Lisa Troyer. 2003. Power, status, and collective action. In Advances in group processes, vol. 20, eds. Shane R. Thye and Edward Lawler, 105–31. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
62. Lucas, Jeffrey W. 2003. Status processes and the institutionalization of women as leaders. American Sociological Review 68:464–80.
63. Lucas, Jeffrey W., and Michael J. Lovaglia. 2006. Legitimation and institutionalization as trust-building: Reducing resistance to power and influence in organizations. Advances in Group Processes 23:229–52.
64. Manz, Charles C. 1986. Self-leadership: Toward an expanded theory of self-influence processes in organizations. Academy of Management Review 11:585–600.
65. Markovsky, Barry, David Willer, and Travis Patton. 1987. Power relations in exchange networks. American Sociological Review 53:220–36.
66. Molm, Linda D., Jessica L. Collett, and David R. Schaefer. 2007. Building solidarity through generalized exchange: A theory of reciprocity. American Journal of Sociology 113:205–42.
67. Moss, Philip, and Chris Tilly. 1996. Soft skills and race: An investigation of black men's employment problems. Work and Occupations 23:252–76.
68. Parsons, Talcott. 1963. On the concept of influence. Public Opinion Quarterly 27:37–62.
69. Pfeffer, Jeffrey. 1992. Managing with power: Politics and influence in organizations. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
70. Pugh, M. D., and Ralph Wahrman. 1983. Neutralizing sexism in mixed-sex groups: Do women have to be better than men? American Journal of Sociology 88:746–62.
71. Rashotte, Lisa Slattery. 2006. Social influence. In The Blackwell encyclopedia of sociology, eds. George Ritzer and J. Michael Ryan, 4426–29. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
72. Rashotte, Lisa Slattery, and Murray Webster Jr. 2005. Gender status beliefs. Social Science Research 34:618–33.
73. Ridgeway, Cecilia L. 1982. Status in groups: The importance of motivation. American Sociological Review 47:76–88.
74. Ridgeway, Cecelia L. 1993. Gender, status, and the social psychology of expectations. In Theory on gender/feminism on theory, ed. Paula England, 175–97. New York, NY: Aldine.
75. Ridgeway, Cecilia L. 2004. Gender, status and leadership. Journal of Social Issues 57:637–55.
76. Ridgeway, Cecilia L., and Joseph Berger. 1986. Expectations, legitimation, and dominance behavior in task groups. American Sociological Review 51:603–17.
77. Ridgeway, Cecilia L., and Shelley J. Correll. 2000. Limiting inequality through interaction: The end(s) of gender. Contemporary Sociology 29:110–20.
78. Ridgeway, Cecilia L., and Lynn Smith-Lovin. 1989. The gender system and interaction. Annual Review of Sociology 25:191–216.
79. Rodríguez-Bailón, Rosa, Miguel Moya, and Vincent Yzerbyt. 2000. Why do superiors attend to negative stereotypic information about their subordinates? Effects of power legitimacy on social perception. European Journal of Social Psychology 30:651–71.
80. Rowe, Mary. 1981. The minutiae of discrimination: The need for support. In Outsiders on the inside: Women and organizations, eds. Barbara L. Forisha and Barbara H. Goldman, 155–77. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
81. Russell, Bertrand. 1938. Power: A new social analysis. New York, NY: Norton.
82. Salancik, Gerald R., and Jeffrey Pfeffer. 1977. Who gets power—and how they hold onto it: A strategic contingency model of power. Organizational Dynamics 5:3–21.
83. Schroeder, Alice. 2009. Warren Buffett and the business of life. New York, NY: Random House.
84. Sell, Jane, Michael J. Lovaglia, Elizabeth A. Mannix, Charles D. Samuelson, and Rick K. Wilson. 2004. Investigating conflict, power, and status within and among groups. Small Groups Research 35: 44–72.
85. Shackelford, Susan, Wendy Wood, and Stephen Worchel. 1996. Behavioral styles and the influences of women in mixed-sex groups. Social Psychology Quarterly 59:284–93.
86. Shell, Adam. 2008. Warren Buffett hones rock-star stats. USA Today.
87. Simpson, Brent, and Henry A. Walker. 2002. Status characteristics and performance expectations: A reformulation. Sociological Theory 20:24–40.
88. Somech, Anit, and Anat Drach-Zahavy. 2011. Translating team creativity to innovation implementation: The role of team composition and climate for innovation. Journal of Management 37:1–25.
89. Stewart, Penni A., and James C. Moore. 1992. Wage disparities and performance expectations. Social Psychology Quarterly 55:78–85.
90. Tajfel, Henri. 1981. Human groups and social categories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
91. Tajfel, Henri. 1986. The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In The social psychology of intergroup relations, ed. Stephen A. Worchel and William G. Austin, 7–24. Chicago, IL: Nelson Hall.
92. Thye, Shane R. 2000. A status value theory of power in exchange relations. American Sociological Review 65:407–32.
93. Toossi, Mitra. 2006. A new look at long-term labor force projections to 2050. Monthly Labor Review (November): 19–39.
94. Troyer, Lisa, and Steven D. Silver. 1999. Institutional logics and group environments: Toward an open systems perspective on group processes. In Advances in group processes, vol. 16, eds. Shane R. Thye, Edward J. Lawler, Michael W. Macey, and Henry A. Walker, 219–52. Greenwich, CT: JAI.
95. Umberson, Debra, and Michael Hughes. 1987. The impact of physical attractiveness on achievement and psychological well-being. Social Psychology Quarterly 50:227–36.
96. U.S. Department of Labor. 2009. Quick stats on women workers, 2009.
97. Wagner, David G., and Joseph Berger. 1993. Status characteristics theory: The growth of a program. In Theoretical research programs: Studies in the growth of theory, eds. Joseph Berger and Morris Zelditch, 23–63. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
98. Wagner, David G., and Joseph Berger. 1997. Gender and interpersonal task behaviors: Status expectation accounts. Sociological Perspectives 40:1–32.
99. Walker, Henry A., and Brent Simpson. 2000. Equating characteristics and status-organizing processes. Social Psychology Quarterly 63:175–85.
100. Walker, Henry A., Shane R. Thye, Brent Simpson, Michael J. Lovaglia, and Barry Markovsky. 2000. Network exchange theory: Recent developments and new directions. Social Psychology Quarterly 63:324–37.
101. Weber, Max. 1978. Economy and society, eds. Guenther Roth and Klaus Wittich. Berkeley: University of California Press.
102. Webster, Murray, Jr., and James E. Driskell. 1978. Status generalization: A review and some new data. American Sociological Review 43:220–36.
103. Webster, Murray, and Martha Foschi, eds. 1988. Status generalization: New theory and research. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
104. Webster, Murray, Jr., and Stuart Hysom. 1998. Creating status characteristics. American Sociological Review 63:351–78.
105. Weick, Mario, and Ana Guinote. 2008. When subjective experiences matter: Power increases reliance on the ease of retrieval. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94:956–70.
106. Willer, David. 1999. Network exchange theory. Westport, CT: Praeger.
107. Willer, David, Michael J. Lovaglia, and Barry Markovsky. 1997. Power and influence: A theoretical bridge. Social Forces 76:571–603.
108. Willer, Robb, Lisa Troyer, and Michael J. Lovaglia. 2005. Influence over observers of structural power: An experimental investigation. Sociological Quarterly 46:263–77.
109. Wolfinger, Raymond E. 1960. Reputation and reality in the study of community power. American Sociological Review 25:636–44.
110. Wrong, Dennis H. 1979. Power: Its forms, bases, and uses. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
111. Zelditch, Morris, Jr. 1992. Interpersonal power. In Encyclopedia of sociology, eds. Edgar F. Borgotta and Marie L. Borgotta, 994–101. New York, NY: Macmillan.