Power, Approach, and Inhibition

Psychological Review

Volumn 110, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 265-284

  Keltner, Dacher ^a   Gruenfeld, Deborah H ^b   Anderson, Cameron ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BEHAVIOR; COGNITION; HUMAN; INHIBITION (PSYCHOLOGY); SOCIAL BEHAVIOR;

COGNITION; HUMANS; INHIBITION (PSYCHOLOGY); POWER (PSYCHOLOGY); SOCIAL BEHAVIOR;

EID: 0037604737     PISSN: 0033295X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.110.2.265     Document Type: Review

References (221)

1. Abbey, A. (1982). Sex differences in attributions for friendly behavior: Do males misperceive females' friendliness? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 830-838.
2. Adkins, D. C., Payne, F. D., & Ballif, B. L. (1972). Motivation factor scores and response set scores for ten ethnic-cultural groups of preschool children. American Educational Research Journal, 9, 557-572.
3. Adler, N. E., Boyce, T., Chesney, M. A., Cohen, S., Folkman, S., Kahn, R. L., & Syme, S. L. (1994). Socioeconomic status and health: The challenge of the gradient. American Psychologist, 49, 15-24.
4. Anderson, C., John, O. P., Keltner, D., & Kring, A. (2001). Social status in naturalistic face-to-face groups: Effects of personality and physical attractiveness in men and women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 116-132.
5. Anderson, C., Keltner, D., & John, O. P. (in press). Emotional convergence in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
6. Anderson, C., Langner, C., & Keltner, D. (2001). Status, power, and emotion. Unpublished manuscript.
7. Anderson, F. J., & Willis, F. N. (1976). Glancing at others in preschool children in relation to dominance. Psychological Record, 26, 467-472.
8. Ashby, F. G., Isen, A. M., & Turken, A. U. (1999). A neuropsychological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition. Psychological Review, 106, 529-550.
9. Atkinson, J. W. (1964). An introduction to motivation. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
10. Aureli, F., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2000). Natural conflict resolution. Berkeley: University of California Press.
11. Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54, 462-479.
12. Bargh, J. A., Raymond, P., Pryor, J. B., & Strack, F. (1995). Attractiveness of the underling: An automatic power-sex association and its consequences for sexual harassment and aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 768-781.
13. Berger, J., Cohen, B. P., & Zelditch, M. (1972). Status characteristics and social interaction. American Sociological Review, 37, 241-255.
14. Bernhardt, P. C. (1997). Influences of serotonin and testosterone in aggression and dominance: Convergence with social psychology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6, 44-48.
15. Blieszner, R., & Adams, R. G. (1992). Adult friendship. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
16. Bodenhausen, G. V., Sheppard, L. A., & Kramer, G. P. (1994). Negative affect and social judgment: The differential impact of anger and sadness. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 45-62.
17. Brendl, C. M., Higgins, E. T., & Lemm, K. M. (1995). Sensitivity to varying gains and losses: The role of self-discrepancies and event framing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1028-1051.
18. Brewer, M. B. (1979). In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 307-324.
19. Brewer, M. B. (1986). The role of ethnocentrism in intergroup conflict. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 88-102). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
20. Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
21. Bugental, D. B., Blue, J., & Cruzcosa, M. (1989). Perceived control over caregiving outcomes: Implications for child abuse, Developmental Psychology, 25, 532-539.
22. Bugental, D. B., & Lewis J. C. (1999). The paradoxical misuse of power by those who see themselves as powerless: How does it happen? Journal of Social Issues, 55, 51-64.
23. Buss, D. M., & Craik, K. H. (1981). The act frequency analysis of interpersonal dispositions: Aloofness, gregariousness, dominance and submissiveness. Journal of Personality, 49, 175-192.
24. Carter, L., Haythorn, W., & Howell, M. (1950). A further investigation of the criteria of leadership. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 45, 350-358.
25. Carver, C. S., Sutton, S. K., & Scheier, M. F. (2000). Action, emotion, and personality: Emerging conceptual integration. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 741-751.
26. Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 319-333.
27. Chaiken, S., Liberman, A., & Eagly, A. H. (1989). Heuristic and systematic processing within and beyond the persuasion context. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 212-252). New York: Guilford.
28. Chance, M. R. A. (1967). Attention structure as the basis of primate rank order. Man, 2, 503-518.
29. Chen, S., Lee-Chai, A. Y., & Bargh, J. A. (2001). Relationship orientation as moderator of the effects of social power. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 183-187.
30. Clark, C. (1990). Emotions and micropolitics in everyday life: Some patterns and paradoxes of "place." In: T. D. Kemper (Ed.), Research agendas in the sociology of emotions (pp. 305-333). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
31. Coats, E. J., & Feldman, R. S. (1996). Gender differences in nonverbal correlates of social status. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1014-1022.
32. Collins, R. (1990). Stratification, emotional energy, and the transient emotions. In T. D. Kemper (Ed.), Research agendas in the sociology of emotions (pp. 27-57). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
33. Cooper, H. M., & Tom, D. (1984). Socioeconomic status and ethnic group differences in achievement motivation. In R. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education (Vol. 1, pp. 209-242). New York: Academic Press.
34. Copeland, J. T. (1994). Prophecies of power: Motivational implications of social power for behavioral confirmation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 264-277.
35. Croizet, J.-C., & Claire, T. (1998). Extending the concept of stereotype and threat to social class: The intellectual underperformance of students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 588-594.
36. Dabbs, J. M. (1997). Testosterone, smiling, and facial appearance. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 21, 45-55.
37. Davidson, R. J. (1992). Emotion and affective style: Hemispheric substrates. Psychological Science, 3, 39-43.
38. Davis, J. H. (1973). Group decision and social interaction: A theory of social decision schemes. Psychological Review, 80, 97-125.
39. Dean, L. M., Willis, F. N., & Hewitt, J. (1975). Initial interaction distance among individuals equal and unequal in military rank. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 294-299.
40. DePaulo, B. M., & Friedman, H. S. (1998). Nonverbal communication. In D. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 3-40). New York: McGraw-Hill.
41. Depret, E. F., & Fiske, S. T. (1993). Perceiving the powerful: Intriguing individuals versus threatening groups. Unpublished manuscript. University of Massachusetts at Amherst.
42. DePue, R. A. (1995). Neurobiological factors in personality and depression. European Journal of Personality, 9, 413-439.
43. Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18.
44. de Waal, F. B. M. (1989). Chimpanzee politics: Power and sex among apes. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
45. Dohrenwend, B. S., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (1969). Social status, stress and psychological symptoms. Milbank Quarterly, 47, 137-150.
46. Domhoff, G. W. (1998). Who rules America. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing.
47. Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. T. (1990). Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 233-256.
48. Eagly, A. H., Makhijani, M. G., & Klonsky, B. G. (1992). Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 3-22.
49. Ebenbach, D. H., & Keltner, D. (1998). Power, emotion and judgmental accuracy in social conflict: Motivating the cognitive miser. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 20, 7-21.
50. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1989). Human ethology. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine De Gruyter.
51. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1978). Facial Action Coding System: A technique for the measurement of facial movement. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
52. Elias, N. (1978). The history of manners. New York: Pantheon Books.
53. Elliot, A. J., & Covington, M. V. (2001). Approach and avoidance motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 13, 73-92.
54. Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2 × 2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 501-519.
55. Elliot, A. J., & Sheldon, K. M. (1998). Avoidance personal goals and the personality-illness relationship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1282-1299.
56. Ellyson, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (Eds.). (1985). Power, dominance, and nonverbal behavior. New York: Springer-Verlag.
57. Ellyson, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., & Fehr, B. J. (1981). Visual behavior and dominance in women and men. In C. Mayo & N. M. Henley (Eds.), Gender and nonverbal behavior (pp. 63-79). New York: Springer Verlag.
58. Emerson, R. M. (1962). Power dependence relations. American Sociological Review, 27, 31-41.
59. Emory, R. (1988). Social geometry and cohesion in three primate species. In M. R. A. Chance (Ed.), Social fabrics of the mind (pp. 47-60). East Sussex, England: Erlbaum.
60. Fan, E. T., & Gruenfeld, D. H. (1998). When needs outweigh desires: The effects of resource interdependence and reward interdependence on group problem solving. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 20, 45-56.
61. Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes, F. R. (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 229-238.
62. Fiske, A. P. (1992). Four elementary forms of sociality: Framework for a unified theory of social relations. Psychological Review, 99, 689-723.
63. Fiske, S. T. (1993). Controlling other people: The impact of power on stereotyping. American Psychologist, 48, 621-628.
64. Fowles, D. C. (1980). The three arousal model: Implications of Gray's two-factor learning theory for heart rate, electrodermal activity, and psychopathy. Psychophysiology, 17, 87-104.
65. Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T.-A. (1997). Objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173-206.
66. Fredrickson, B. L., Roberts, T.-A., Noll, S. M., Quinn, D. M., & Twenge, J. M. (1998). That swimsuit becomes you: Sex differences in self-objectification, restrained eating, and math performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 269-284.
67. French, J., & Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Studies in social power (pp. 150-167). Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.
68. Frieze, I. H. (Ed.). (1999). Social influence and social power: Using theory for understanding social issues [Special issue]. Journal of Social Issues, 55(1).
69. Gilbert, D. T. (1998). Ordinary personology. In D. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 89-150). New York: McGraw Hill.
70. Gilbert, D. T., Krull, D. S., & Pelham, B. W. (1988). Of thoughts unspoken: Social inference and the self-regulation of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 685-694.
71. Gladue, B. A., Boechler, M., & McCaul, K. D. (1989). Hormonal response to competition in human males. Aggressive Behavior, 15, 409-422.
72. Goffman, E. (1967). Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books.
73. Gonzaga, G. C., & Keltner, D. (2001). Power and flirtation. Manuscript submitted for publication.
74. Goodwin, S. A., & Fiske, S. T. (1993). Impression formation in asymmetrical power relationships: Does power corrupt absolutely? Unpublished manuscript, University of Massachusetts at Amherst.
75. Goodwin, S. A., Gubin, A., Fiske, S., & Yzerbyt, V. Y. (2000). Power can bias impression processes: Stereotyping subordinates by default and by design. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 3, 227-256.
76. Gottfredson, M. R., & Hindelang, M. J. (1981). Sociological aspects of criminal victimization. Annual Review of Sociology, 7, 107-128.
77. Gough, H. G., & Bradley, P. (1996). CPI manual (3rd ed). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
78. Graham, S. (1984). Teacher feelings and student thoughts: An attributional approach to affect in the classroom. The Elementary School Journal, 85, 91-104.
79. Grammer, K. (1990). Strangers meet: Laughter and nonverbal signs of interest in opposite sex encounters. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 14, 209-236.
80. Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety. New York: Oxford University Press.
81. Gray, J. A. (1987). The psychology of fear and stress. New York: Cambridge University Press.
82. Gray, J. A. (1991). Neural systems, emotion, and personality. In J. Madden IV (Ed.), Neurobiology of learning, emotion, and affect (pp. 273-396). New York: Raven Press.
83. Gray, J. A. (1994). Three fundamental emotion systems. In P. Ekman & R. J. Davidson (Eds.), The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions (pp. 243-247). New York: Oxford University Press.
84. Green, D. P., Wong, J., & Strolovitch, D. (1996). The effects of demo-graphic change on hate crime. (Working Paper No. 96-06). New Haven, CT: Institution for Social and Policy studies, Yale University.
85. Gruenfeld, D. H. (1993). Status and integrative complexity in decision-making groups: Evidence from the U.S. Supreme Court and a laboratory experiment. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
86. Gruenfeld, D. H. (1995). Status, ideology and integrative complexity on the U.S. Supreme Court: Rethinking the politics of political decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 5-20.
87. Gruenfeld, D. H., & Kim, P. H. (1998). Dissent and decision making on the U.S. Supreme Court: Conflict with a minority predicts cognitive complexity in the majority. Unpublished manuscript, J. L. Kellogg Graduate School of Management, Northwestern University.
88. Gruenfeld, D. H., & Preston, J. (in press). Upending the status quo: Cognitive complexity in Supreme Court justices who overturn legal precedent. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.
89. Gruenfeld, D. H., Thomas-Hunt, M., & Kim, P. H. (1998). Cognitive flexibility, communication strategy, and integrative complexity in groups: Public versus private reactions to majority and minority status. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 34, 202-226.
90. Haidt, J., & Rodin, J. (in press). Control and efficacy as interdisciplinary bridges. Review of General Psychology.
91. Hall, J. A. (1984). Nonverbal gender differences: Accuracy of communication and expressive style. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
92. Hall, J. A., & Halberstadt, A. G. (1994). "Subordination" and sensitivity to nonverbal cues: A study of married working women. Sex Roles, 31, 149-165.
93. Hecht, D. B., Inderbirtzen, H. M., & Bukowski, A. L. (1998). The relationship between peer status and depressive symptoms in children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 153-160.
94. Hecht, M., & LaFrance, M. (1998). License or obligation to smile: The effect of power and sex on amount and type of smiling. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 1332-1342.
95. Henley, N. (1977). Body politics: Power, sex, and nonverbal communication, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
96. Henley, N. M., & LaFrance, M. (1984). Gender as culture: Difference and dominance in nonverbal behavior. In A. Wolfgang (Ed.), Nonverbal behavior: Perspectives, applications, intercultural insights (pp. 351-371). Lewiston, NY: C. J. Hogrefe.
97. Heslin, R., & Boss, D. (1980). Nonverbal intimacy in airport arrival and departure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6, 248-252.
98. Hickson, D. J., Hinings, C. R., Lee, C. A., Schneck, R. E., & Pennings, J. M. (1971). A strategic contingencies' theory of intraorganizational power. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16, 216-229.
99. Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280-1300.
100. Higgins, E. T. (1999). Promotion and prevention as motivational duality: Implications for evaluative processes. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 503-525). New York: Guilford Press.
101. Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as a moderator. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 515-525.
102. Hogan, R., Raskin, R., & Fazzini, D. (1990). The dark side of charisma. In K. E. Craik & M. B. Clark (Eds.), Measures of leadership (pp. 343-354). West Orange, NJ: Leadership Library of America.
103. Holtgraves, T., & Lasky, B. (1999). Linguistic power and persuasion. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 18, 196-205.
104. Hosman, L. A. (1989). The evaluative consequences of hedges, hesitations, and intensifiers: Powerful and powerless speech styles. Human Communication Research, 15, 383-406.
105. Howard, J. A., Blumstein, P., & Schwartz, P. (1986). Sex, power, and influence tactics in intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 102-109.
106. Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of groupthink Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
107. Janis, I., & Mann, L. (1991). Cognitive complexity in international decision making. In P. Suedfeld & P. E. Tetlock (Eds.), Psychology and social policy (pp. 33-49). New York: Hemisphere.
108. Jenkins, J. M., & Asington, J. W. (1996). Cognitive factors and family structure associated with theory of mind in young children. Developmental Psychology, 32, 70-78.
109. Jost, J. T. (in press). Fairness norms and the potential for mutual agreements involving majority and minority groups. In M. A. Neale, E. A. Mannix, & R. Wageman (Eds.), Research on managing groups and teams: Context (Vol. 2). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
110. Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 1-27.
111. Kelley, H. H., & Stahelski, A. J. (1970). Social interaction basis of cooperators' and competitors' beliefs about others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16, 66-91.
112. Keltner, D. (1996). Facial expressions of emotion and personality. In C. Magai & S. H. McFadden (Eds.), Handbook of emotion, adult development, and aging (pp. 385-401). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
113. Keltner, D., Capps, L. M., Kring, A. M., Young, R. C., & Heerey, E. A. (2001). Just teasing: A conceptual analysis and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 229-248.
114. Keltner, D., & Robinson, R. J. (1996). Extremism, power, and the imagined basis of social conflict. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 5, 101-105.
115. Keltner, D., & Robinson, R. J. (1997). Defending the status quo: Power and bias in social conflict. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 1066-1077.
116. Keltner, D., Young, R. C., & Buswell, B. N. (1997). Appeasement in human emotion, social practice, and personality. Aggressive Behavior, 23, 359-374.
117. Keltner, D., Young, R. C., Heerey, E. A., Oemig, C., & Monarch, N. D. (1998). Teasing in hierarchical and intimate relations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1231-1247.
118. Kemper, T. D. (1991). Predicting emotions from social relations. Social Psychology Quarterly, 54, 330-342.
119. Kim, P. H. (1997). Strategic timing in group negotiations: The implications of forced entry and forced exit or negotiators with unequal power. Organization Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 71, 263-286.
120. King, M. G. (1966). Interpersonal relations in pre-school children and average approach distance. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 109, 109-116.
121. Kipnis, D. (1972). Does power corrupt? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 33-41.
122. Kipnis, D. (1976). The powerholders. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
123. Kupersmidt, J. B., & Patterson, C. J. (1991). Childhood peer rejection, aggression, withdrawal, and perceived competence as predictors of self-reported behavior problems in preadolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 19, 427-449.
124. LaFrance, M., & Banaji, M. (1992). Towards a reconsideration of the gender emotion relationship. In M. S. Clark (Ed.), Emotion and social behavior: Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 14, pp. 178-201). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
125. LaFrance, M., Henley, N. M., Hall, J. A., & Halberstadt, A. G. (1997). Nonverbal behavior: Are women's superior skills caused by their oppression? In M. R. Walsh (Ed.), Women, men, and gender: Ongoing debates (pp. 101-133). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
126. La Freniere, P., & Charlesworth, W. R. (1983). Dominance, attention, and affiliation in a preschool group: A nine-month longitudinal study. Ethology and Sociobiology, 4, 55-67.
127. La Freniere, P. J., & Stroufe, L. A. (1984). Profiles of peer competence in the preschool: Intercorrelations between measures, influence of social ecology, and attachment history. Developmental Psychology, 21, 51-69.
128. Larsen, R. J., & Ketelaar, T. (1991). Personality and susceptibility to positive and negative emotional states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 132-140.
129. Lee-Chai, A. Y., & Bargh, J. A. (2001). The use and abuse of power. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
130. Lerner, J. S., & Keltner, D. (2000). Beyond valence: Toward a model of emotion specific influences on judgment and choice. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 473-493.
131. Lerner, J. S., & Keltner, D. (2001). Fear, anger, and risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 146-159.
132. Lerner, J. S., & Tetlock, P. E. (1999). Accounting for the effects of accountability. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 255-275.
133. Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created "social climates." Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271-299.
134. Link, B. G., Lennon, M. C., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (1993). Sociometric status and depression: The role of occupations involving direction, control, and planning. American Journal of Sociology, 98, 1351-1387.
135. Lord, C. G., & Saenz, D. S. (1985). Memory deficits and memory surfeits: Differential cognitive consequences of tokenism for tokens and observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 918-926.
136. Lott, D. F., & Sommer, R. (1967). Seating arrangements and status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 90-95.
137. Lukes, S. (1986). Power. New York: New York University Press.
138. MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (1988). Anxiety and the allocation of attention to threat. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 653-670.
139. Major, B., & Heslin, R. (1982). Perceptions of cross-sex and same-sex nonreciprocal touch: It is better to give than receive. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 6, 148-162.
140. Malamuth, N. M. (1996). The confluence model of sexual aggression: Feminist and evolutionary perspectives. In D. M. Buss & N. M. Malamuth (Eds.), Sex, power, conflict: Evolutionary and feminist perspectives (pp. 269-295). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
141. Mannix, E. A., & Neale, M. A. (1993). Power imbalance and the pattern of exchange in dyadic negotiation. Group Decision and Negotiation, 2, 119-133.
142. Marx, K. (1982). Selected writings in sociology and social philosophy. (T. Bottomore & M. Rubel, Eds.). Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books.
143. Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (1985). Selective processing of threat cues in anxiety states. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23, 563-569.
144. Mazur, A., & Booth, A. (1998). Testosterone and dominance in men. Brain and Behavioral Sciences, 21, 353-397.
145. Megargee, E. I. (1969). Influence of sex roles on the manifestation of leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 53, 377-382.
146. Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 371-378.
147. Miller, N. E. (1944). Experimental studies of conflict. In J. McV. Hunt (Ed.), Personality and the behavior disorders (Vol. 1, pp. 431-465). New York: Ronald Press.
148. Mineka, S., & Sutton, S. K. (1992). Cognitive biases and the emotional disorders. Psychological Science, 3, 65-69.
149. Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (1983). The multidimensionality of psychopathology in a community sample. American Journal of Community Psychology, 11, 573-591.
150. Montagner, H., Restoin, A., Rodriguez, D., Ullman, V., Viala, M., Laurent, D., & Godard, D. (1988). Social interactions of young children with peers and their modifications in relation to environmental factors. In M. R. A. Chance (Ed.), Social fabrics of the mind (pp. 237-259). East Sussex, England: Erlbaum.
151. Moreland, R. L., & Levine, J. M. (1989). Newcomers and oldtimers in small groups. In P. Paulus (Ed.), Psychology of group influence (2nd ed., pp. 143-186). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
152. Moskowitz, D. S. (1994). Cross-situational generality and the interpersonal circumplex. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 921-933.
153. Mueller, U., & Mazur, A. (1997). Facial dominance in Homo sapiens as honest signaling of male quality. Behavioral Ecology, 8, 569-579.
154. Mullen, B., Brown, R., & Smith, C. (1992). Ingroup bias as a function of salience, relevance, and status: An integration. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 103-122.
155. Nemeth, C. (1986). Differential contributions of majority and minority influence. Psychological Review, 93, 23-32.
156. Neuberg, S. L., & Fiske, S. T. (1987). Motivational influences on impression formation: Outcome dependency, accuracy-driven attention, and individuating processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 431-444.
157. Newman, J. P. (1987). Reaction to punishment in extraverts and psychopaths: Implications for the impulsive behavior of disinhibited individuals. Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 464-485.
158. Newman, J. P. (1997). Conceptual models of the nervous system: Implications for antisocial behavior. In D. M. Stoff, J. Breiling, & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior (pp 324-335). New York: Wiley.
159. Ng, S. H. (1980). The social psychology of power. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
160. Ng, S. H., & Cram, F. (1988). Intergroup bias by defensive and offensive groups in majority and minority conditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 749-757.
161. Noelle-Neumann, E. (1991). The theory of public opinion: The concept of the spiral of silence. In J. A. Anderson (Ed.), Communication yearbook (Vol. 14, pp 256-287). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
162. Nygard, R. (1969). Motive to approach success and motive to avoid failure in boys from different social groups. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 4, 222-232.
163. Owens, D. A., & Sutton, R. I. (2001). Status contests in meetings: Negotiating the informal order. In M. E. Turner (Ed.), Groups at work: Theory and research (pp. 299-316). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
164. Parker, G. A., & Rubenstein, D. I. (1981). Role assessment, reserve strategy, and acquisition of information in asymmetric animal conflicts. Animal Behavior, 29, 221-240.
165. Pearson, C. M., & Porath, C. L. (1999, August). Workplace incivility: The target's eye view. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Chicago.
166. Perner, J., Ruffman, T., & Leekam, S. R. (1994). Theory of mind is contagious: You catch it from your sibs. Child Development, 65, 1228-1238.
167. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 123-205). New York: Academic Press.
168. Pfeffer, J. (1992). Managing with power. Cambridge, MA: HBS Press.
169. Pratto, F. (1996). Sexual politics: The gender gap in the bedroom, the cupboard, and the cabinet, In D. M. Buss & N. M. Malamuth (Eds.), Sex, power, and conflict: Evolutionary and feminist perspectives (pp. 179-230). New York: Oxford University Press.
170. Ramirez, M., III, & Price-Williams, D. R. (1976). Achievement motivation in children of three ethnic groups in the United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 7, 49-61.
171. Raven, B. H. (1999). Influence, power, religion, and the mechanisms of social control. Journal of Social Issues, 55, 161-186.
172. Ray, J. C., & Sapolsky, R. M. (1992). Styles of male social behavior and their endocrine correlates among high-ranking wild baboons. American Journal of Primatology, 28, 231-250.
173. Reid, S. A., & Ng, S. H. (1999). Language, power, and intergroup relations. Journal of Social Issues, 55, 119-139.
174. Rejeski, W. J., Gagne, M., Parker, P. E., & Koritnik, D. R. (1989). Acute stress reactivity from contested dominance in dominant and submissive males. Behavioral Medicine, 15, 118-124.
175. Riger, S., Lebailly, R. K., & Gordon, M. T. (1981). Community ties and urbanites' fear of crimes: An ecological investigation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 653-665.
176. Rind, B., & Kipnis, D. (1999). Changes in self-perceptions as a result of successfully persuading others. Journal of Social Issues, 55, 141-156.
177. Rolls, E. T. (2000). The orbitofrontal cortex and reward. Cerebral Cortex, 10, 284-294.
178. Rusbult, C. E., Verette, J., Whitney, G. A., Slovik, L. P., & Lipkus, I. (1991). Accommodation processes in close relationships: Theory and preliminary empirical evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 53-78.
179. Russell, B. (1938). Power: A new social analysis. London: Allen and Unwin.
180. Sachdev, I., & Bourhis, R. Y. (1991). Power and status differentials in minority and majority group relations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 21, 1-24.
181. Sanday, P. R. (1981). The socio-cultural context of rape: A cross-cultural study. Journal of Social Issues, 37(4), 5-27.
182. Sanders, M., Scholz, J. P., & Kagan, S. (1976). Three social motives and field independence-dependence in Anglo-American and Mexican-American children. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 7, 451-461.
183. Sapolsky, R. M., & Ray, J. C (1989). Styles of dominance and their endocrine correlates among wild olive baboons (Papio anubis). American Journal of Primatology, 18, 1-13.
184. Sasao, A., Toshiaki, D., Duval, S., & Sadamura, N. (1986). Minority status and depression: A social psychological perspective. Asian American Psychological Association Journal, 10, 46-50.
185. Savin-Williams, R. C. (1977). Dominance in a human adolescent group. Animal Behavior, 25, 400-406.
186. Schneirla, T. C. (1959). An evolutionary and developmental theory of biphasic processes underlying approach and withdrawal. In M. R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Vol. 7 Current Theory and Research in Motivation (pp. 1-42). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
187. Schwartz, D., Dodge, K. A., & Coie, J. D. (1993). The emergence of chronic peer victimization in boys' play groups. Child Development, 64, 1755-1772.
188. Shah, J., & Higgins, E. T. (2001). Regulatory concerns and appraisal efficiency: The general impact of promotion and prevention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 693-705.
189. Shamir, J. (1997). Speaking out and silencing in the face of a changing climate of opinion: The spiral of silence theory in the Intifada. Communication Research, 22, 24-53.
190. Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R., & Sherif, C. W. (1961). Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The Robbers Cave experiment. Norman: University of Oklahoma Book Exchange.
191. Sidanius, J. (1993). The psychology of group conflict and the dynamics of oppression: A social dominance perspective. In S. Iyengar (Ed.), Explorations in political psychology (pp. 183-219). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
192. Simpson, J. A., Gangestad, S. W., & Nations, C. (1996). Sociosexuality and relationship initiation: An ethological perspective of nonverbal behavior. In G. J. O. Fletcher & J. Fitness (Eds.), Knowledge structures in close relationships: A social psychological approach (pp. 121-146). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
193. Snodgrass, S. E. (1985). Women's intuition: The effect of subordinate role on interpersonal sensitivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 146-155.
194. Snodgrass, S. E. (1992). Further effects of role versus gender on interpersonal sensitivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 154-158.
195. Snodgrass, S. E., Hecht, M. A., & Ploutz-Snyder, R. (1998). Interpersonal sensitivity: Expressivity or perceptivity? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 238-249.
196. Sondak, H., & Bazerman, M. (1991). Power balance and the rationality of outcomes in matching markets. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 1-23.
197. Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797-811.
198. Studd,M.V. (1996). Sexual harassment. InD.M. Buss &N.M. Malamuth (Eds.), Sex, power, and conflict: Evolutionary and feminist perspectives (pp. 54-89). New York: Oxford University Press.
199. Suedfeld,P., Tetlock,P.E., & Streufert,S. (1992). Conceptual/integrative complexity. InC. Smith (Ed.), Motivation and personality: Handbook of thematic content analysis (pp. 401-418). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
200. Sulloway,F.J. (1996). Born to rebel: Birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. New York: Pantheon Books.
201. Sutton, S. K., & Davidson, R. J. (1997). Prefrontal brain asymmetry: A biological substrate of the behavioral approach and inhibition systems. Psychological Science, 8, 204-210.
202. Tetlock, P. E. (1981). Pre-to postelection shifts in presidential rhetoric: Cognitive adjustment or impression management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 207-213.
203. Tetlock, P. E. (1992). The impact of accountability on judgment and choice: Toward a social contingency model. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 25, pp. 331-376). New York: Academic Press.
204. Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1959). The social psychology of groups. New York: Wiley.
205. Tiedens, L. Z., Ellsworth, P. C., & Mesquita, B. (2000). Stereotypes about sentiments and status: Emotional expectations for high- and low-status group members. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 560-574.
206. Upmanyu, V. V. (1974). An investigation into the relationship between sociometric status and different components of anxiety. Journal of Psychological Researches, 18, 78-82.
207. Vasquez, K., Keltner, D., Ebenbach, D. H., & Banaszynski, T. L. (2001). Cultural variation and similarity in moral rhetorics: Voices from the Philippines and United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32, 93-120.
208. Ward, G., & Keltner, D. (1998). Power and the consumption of resources. Unpublished manuscript.
209. Warren, B. J. (1997). Depression, stressful life events, social support, and self-esteem in middle class African American women. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 11, 107-117.
210. Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1997). Extraversion and its positive emotional core. In R. Hogan & J. A. Johnson (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 767-793). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
211. Weber, M. (1947). The theory of social and economic organization (A. M. Henderson & T. Parsons, Trans.). New York: Oxford University Press.
212. Wegner, D. M., & Bargh, J. A. (1998). Control and automaticity in social life. In D. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 446-496). New York: McGraw-Hill.
213. Whitney, I., & Smith, P. K. (1993). A survey of the nature and extent of bullying in junior/middle and secondary schools. Educational Research, 35, 3-25.
214. Wiggins, J. S., & Broughton, R. (1985). The interpersonal circle: A structural model for the integration of personality research. Perspectives in Personality, 1, 1-47.
215. Wilson, D. S., Near, D., & Miller, R. R. (1996). Machiavellianism: A synthesis of the evolutionary and psychological literatures. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 285-299.
216. Winter, D. G. (1973). The power motive. New York: Free Press.
217. Winter, D. G. (1988). The power motive in women and men. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 510-519.
218. Winter, D. G., & Barenbaum, N. B. (1985). Responsibility and the power motive in women and men. Journal of Personality, 53, 335-355.
219. Woike, B. A. (1994). The use of differentiation and integration processes: Empirical studies of "separate" and "connected" ways of thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 142-150.
220. Young, R. C., Keltner, D., Londahl, E. A., Capps, L. M., & Tauer, J. T. (1999). The pleasures of talking trash: Development, social status, and teasing. Unpublished manuscript.
221. Zander, A., & Forward, J. (1968). Position in group, achievement motivation, and group aspirations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 282-288.