Short-term impacts of a 4-Lane highway on american black bears in Eastern North Carolina

Wildlife Monographs

Volumn , Issue 181, 2012, Pages 1-35

  Van Manen, Frank T ^a   McCollister, Matthew F ^b,d   Nicholson, Jeremy M ^b,e   Thompson, Laura M ^b,f   Kindall, Jason L ^b,g   Jones, Mark D ^c  

^a U S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE   (United States)

^c North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission   (United States)

^d US Fish and Wildlife Service   (United States)

^e NATIONAL PARK SERVICE   (United States)

^f TRENT UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^g Beaver Watershed Alliance   (United States)

Author keywords

American black bear; before after control impacts study; capture mark recapture; eastern North Carolina; genetic sampling; highway impacts; occupancy models; population response; radiotelemetry; spatiotemporal response; transportation infrastructure; Ursus americanus

Indexed keywords

MAMMALIA; URSUS AMERICANUS;

EID: 84860670450     PISSN: 00840173     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1002/wmon.7     Document Type: Article

References (218)

1. Adams, L. W., and A. D. Geis. 1983. Effects of roads on small mammals. Journal of Applied Ecology 20: 403-415.
2. Akaike, H. 1973. Information theory as an extension of the maximum likelihood principle. Pages 267-281 in B. N. Petrov and F. Csaki, editors. Second Symposium on information theory. Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, Hungary.
3. Allen, R. E., and D. R. McCullough. 1976. Deer-car accidents in southern Michigan. Journal of Wildlife Management 40: 317-325.
4. Allendorf, F. W., and N. Ryman. 2002. The role of genetics in population viability analysis. Pages 50-85 in S. R. Beissinger and D. R. McCullough, editors. Population viability analysis. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
5. Amstrup, S. C., and J. Beecham. 1976. Activity patterns of radio-collared black bears in Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management 40: 340-348.
6. Ayres L. A., L. S. Chow, and D. M. Graber. 1986. Black bear activity patterns and human induced modifications in Sequoia National Park. International Conference on Bear Research and Management 6: 151-154.
7. Balkenhol, N., and L. P. Waits. 2009. Molecular road ecology: exploring the potential of genetics for investigating transportation impacts on wildlife. Molecular Ecology 18: 4151-4164.
8. Bangs, E. E., T. N. Bailey, and M. F. Portner. 1989. Survival rates of adult female moose on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management 53: 557-563. (Pubitemid 20420050)
9. Batschelet, E. 1981. Circular statistics in biology. Academic Press, New York, New York, USA.
10. Beckmann, J. P., A. P. Clevenger, M. P. Huijser, and J. A. Hilty. 2010. Safe passages: highways, wildlife and habitat connectivity. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
11. Beckmann, J. P., and J. A. Hilty. 2010. Connecting wildlife populations in fractured landscapes. Pages 3-16 in J. P. Beckmann, A. P. Clevenger, M. P. Huijser, and J. A. Hilty, editors. Safe passages: highways, wildlife and habitat connectivity. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
12. Beerli, P., and J. Felsenstein. 2001. Maximum likelihood estimation of a migration matrix and effective population sizes in n subpopulations by using a coalescent approach. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 98: 4563-4568. (Pubitemid 32295016)
13. Benítez-López, A., R. Alkemade, and P. A. Verweij. 2009. Are mammal and bird populations declining in the proximity of roads and other infrastructure? Systematic Review No. 68. Collaboration for Environmental Evidence. 〈http://www. environmentalevidence.org/Documents/SR68.pdf〉. Accessed 20 Sep 2010.
14. Benítez-López, A., R. Alkemade, and P. A. Verweij. 2010. The impacts of roads and other infrastructure on mammal and bird populations: a meta-analysis. Biological Conservation 143: 1307-1316.
15. Beringer, J. J., S. G. Seibert, and M. R. Pelton. 1990. Incidence of road crossing by black bears on Pisgah National Forest, North Carolina. International Conference on Bear Research and Management 8: 85-92.
16. Bjärvall, A., and F. Sandegren. 1987. Early experiences with the first radio-marked brown bears in Sweden. International Conference on Bear Research and Management 7: 9-12.
17. Boersen, M. R., J. D. Clark, and T. L. King. 2003. Estimating black bear population density and genetic diversity at Tensas River, Louisiana using microsatellite DNA markers. Wildlife Society Bulletin 31: 197-207. (Pubitemid 36524865)
18. Bonin, A., E. Bellemain, P. B. Eidesen, F. Pompanon, C. Brochmann, and P. Taberlet. 2004. How to track and assess genotyping errors in population genetics studies. Molecular Ecology 13: 3261-3273. (Pubitemid 39415663)
19. Borchers, D. L., and M. G. Efford. 2008. Spatially explicit maximum likelihood methods for capture-recapture studies. Biometrics 64: 377-385. (Pubitemid 351691934)
20. Bowcock, A. M., A. Ruiz-Linares, J. Tomfohrde, E. Minch, J. R. Kidd, and L. L. Cavalli-Sforza. 1994. High resolution of human evolutionary ecology with polymorphic microsatellites. Nature 368: 455-457.
21. Brandenburg, D. M. 1996. Effects of roads on behavior and survival of black bears in coastal North Carolina. Thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA.
22. Brody, A. J., and M. R. Pelton. 1989. Effects of roads on black bear movements in Western North Carolina. Wildlife Society Bulletin 17: 5-10. (Pubitemid 20429655)
23. Broquet, T., J. Yearsley, A. H. Hirzel, J. Goudet, and N. Perrin. 2009. Inferring recent migration rates from individual genotypes. Molecular Ecology 18: 1048-1060.
24. Bunnell, F. L., and D. E. N. Tait. 1981. Population dynamics of bears-implications. Pages 75-98 in C. W. Fowler and T. D. Smith, editors. Dynamics of large mammal populations. John Wiley, New York, New York, USA.
25. Burnham, K. P., and D. R. Anderson. 2002. Model selection and multimodal inference: a practical information-theoretic approach. Second edition. Springer-Verlag, New York, New York, USA.
26. Cain, J. W., P. R. Krausman, J. R. Morgart, B. D. Jansen, and M. P. Pepper. 2008. Responses of desert bighorn sheep to removal of water sources. Wildlife Monographs 171.
27. Cain, A. T., V. R. Tuovila, D. G. Hewitt, and M. E. Tewes. 2003. Effects of a highway and mitigation projects on bobcats in Southern Texas. Biological Conservation 114: 189-197. (Pubitemid 38065550)
28. Carr, L. W., and L. Fahrig. 2001. Effect of road traffic on two amphibian species of differing vagility. Conservation Biology 15: 1071-1078. (Pubitemid 32706846)
29. Case, R. M. 1978. Interstate highway road-killed animals: a data source for wildlife biologists. Wildlife Society Bulletin 6: 8-13.
30. Caughley, G., and A. R. E. Sinclair. 1994. Wildlife ecology and management. Blackwell, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
31. Cegeleski, C. C., L. P. Waits, and N. J. Anderson. 2003. Assessing population structure and gene flow in Montana wolverines (Gulo gulo) using assignment-based approaches. Molecular Ecology 12: 2907-2918. (Pubitemid 37425062)
32. Cherry, S. 1998. Statistical tests in publications of The Wildlife Society. Wildlife Society Bulletin 26: 947-953.
33. Chruszcz, B., A. P. Clevenger, K. E. Gunson, and M. L. Gibeau. 2003. Relationships among grizzly bears, highways, and habitat in Banff-Bow Valley, Alberta, Canada. Canadian Journal of Zoology 81: 1378-1391. (Pubitemid 37514951)
34. Clark, J. D., R. Eastridge, and M. J. Hooker. 2010. Effects of exploitation on black bear populations at White River National Wildlife Refuge. Journal of Wildlife Management 74: 1448-1456.
35. Clevenger, A. P., B. Chruszcz, and K. Gunson. 2001. Highway mitigation fencing reduces wildlife-vehicle collisions. Wildlife Society Bulletin 29: 646-653. (Pubitemid 32656850)
36. Clevenger, A. P., A. T. Ford, and M. A. Sawaya. 2009. Banff wildlife crossings project: integrating science and education in restoring population connectivity across transportation corridors. Final report to Parks Canada Agency, Radium Hot Springs, British Columbia, Canada.
37. Clevenger, A. P., and N. Waltho. 2005. Performance indices to identify attributes of highway crossing structures facilitating movement of large mammals. Biological Conservation 121: 453-464. (Pubitemid 39151682)
38. Conover, M. R., W. C. Pitt, K. K. Kessler, T. J. DuBow, and W. A. Sanborn. 1995. Review of human injuries, illnesses and economic losses caused by wildlife in the United States. Wildlife Society Bulletin 23: 407-414. (Pubitemid 26434106)
39. Costello, C. M. 2010. Estimates of dispersal and home-range fidelity in American black bears. Journal of Mammalogy 91: 116-121.
40. Crosby, M. K. A., L. E. Licht, and J. Fu. 2008. The effect of habitat fragmentation on finescale population structure of wood frogs (Rana sylvatica). Conservation Genetics 10: 1707-1718.
41. Dahle, B., O. Støen, and J. E. Swenson. 2006. Factors influencing home-range size in subadult brown bears. Journal of Mammalogy 87: 859-865. (Pubitemid 44639853)
42. Dahle, B., and J. E. Swenson. 2003. Home ranges in adult Scandinavian brown bears Ursus arctos: effect of population density, mass, sex, reproductive status and habitat type. Journal of Zoology (London) 260: 329-335. (Pubitemid 36953514)
43. Dixon,J. D., M.K. Oli,M. C.Wooten,T.H.Eason,J. W.McCown, andM. W. Cunningham. 2007. Genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation and loss: the case of the Florida black bear (Ursus americanus floridanus). Conservation Genetics 8: 455-464. (Pubitemid 46355130)
44. Efford, M. G. 2004. Density estimation in live-trapping studies. Oikos 106: 598-610.
45. Efford, M. G. 2010. Density 4.4: software for spatially explicit capture-recapture. 〈http://www.otago.ac.nz/density〉. Accessed 12 Jul 2010.
46. Efford, M. G., D. K. Dawson, and C. S. Robbins. 2004. DENSITY: software for analysing capture-recapture data from passive detector arrays. Animal Biodiversity and Conservation 27: 217-228. (Pubitemid 40958913)
47. Ennis, S., and T. F. Gallagher. 1994. PCR-based sex determination assay in cattle based on the bovine Amelogenin locus. Animal Genetics 25: 425-427.
48. Evink, G. 2002. Interaction between roadways and wildlife ecology: a synthesis of highway practice. National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Synthesis 305. Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., USA.
49. Fahrig, L., and T. Rytwinski. 2009. Effects of roads on animal abundance: an empirical review and synthesis. Ecology and Society 14: 21. 〈http://www.eco-logyandsociety.org/vol14/iss1/art21/〉. Accessed 10 Apr 2009.
50. Faubet, P., and O. E. Gaggiotti. 2008. A new Bayesian method to identify the environmental factors that influence recent migration. Genetics 178: 1491-1504.
51. Faubet, P., R. S. Waples, and O. E. Gaggiotti. 2007. Evaluating the performance of a multilocus Bayesian method for the estimation of migration rates. Molecular Ecology 16: 1149-1166. (Pubitemid 46354189)
52. Fecske, D. M., R. E. Barry, F. L. Precht, H. B. Quigley, S. L. Bittner, and T. W. Webster. 2002. Habitat use by female black bears in western Maryland. Southeastern Naturalist 1: 77-92. (Pubitemid 41246670)
53. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2001. A summary of Florida panther mortality caused by vehicular collisions. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Bureau of Wildlife Diversity, Conservation, Tallahassee, USA.
54. Foley, J. A., R. DeFries, G. P. Asner, C. Barford, G. Bonan, S. R. Carpenter, F. S. Chapin, M. T. Coe, G. C. Daily, H. K. Gibbs, J. H. Helkowski, T. Holloway, E. A. Howard, C. J. Kucharik, C. Monfreda, J. A. Patz, I. C. Prentice, N. Ramankutty, and P. K. Snyder. 2005. Global consequences of land use. Science 309: 570-574. (Pubitemid 41033633)
55. Forman, R. T., and L. E. Alexander. 1998. Roads and their major ecological effects. Annual Review Ecological Systems 29: 207-232.
56. Forman, R. T. T., D. Sperling, J. A. Bissonette, A. P. Clevenger, C. D. Cutshall, V. H. Dale, L. Fahrig, R. France, C. R. Goldman, K. Heanue, J. A. Jones, F. J. Swanson, T. Turrentine, and T. C. Winter. 2003. Road ecology: science and solutions. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
57. Foster, M. L., and S. R. Humphrey. 1995. Use of highway underpasses by Florida panthers and other wildlife. Wildlife Society Bulletin 23: 95-100. (Pubitemid 26451680)
58. Frankham, R. J. 1996. Relationship of genetic variation to population size in wildlife. Conservation Biology 10: 1500-1508.
59. Fuller, T. 1989. Population dynamics of wolves in north-central Minnesota. Wildlife Monographs 101.
60. Garner, N. P. 1986. Seasonal movements, habitat selection, and food habits of black bears (Ursus americanus) in Shenandoah National Park, Virginia. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, USA.
61. Garshelis, D. L. 2004. Variation in Ursid life histories. Pages 53-73 in D. Lindburg and K. Baragona, editors. Giant pandas. Biology and conservation. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, USA.
62. Garshelis, D. L. 2010. Why American black bears thrive while other bears falter. Western Black Bear Workshop 10: 94-104.
63. Garshelis, D. L., and M. R. Pelton. 1980. Activity patterns of black bears in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Journal of Mammalogy 61: 8-19.
64. Garshelis, D. L., H. L. Quigley, C. R. Villarrubia, and M. R. Pelton. 1982. Assessment of telemetric motion sensors for studies of activity. Canadian Journal of Zoology 60: 1800-1805. (Pubitemid 13284086)
65. Gibbs, J. P., and W. G. Shriver. 2002. Estimating the effects of road mortality on turtle populations. Conservation Biology 16: 1647-1652. (Pubitemid 35456976)
66. Gibeau, M. L., A. P. Clevenger, S. Herrero, and J. Wierzchowski. 2002. Grizzly bear response to human development and activities in the Bow River watershed, Alberta. Biological Conservation 103: 227-236. (Pubitemid 34067475)
67. Green, R. H. 1979. Sampling design and statistical methods for environmental biologists. Wiley, New York, New York, USA.
68. Guo, S. W., and E. A. Thompson. 1992. A Monte Carlo method for combined segregation and linkage analysis. American Journal of Human Genetics 51: 1111-1126.
69. Hardy, A., S. Lee, and A. F. Al-Kaisy. 2006. Effectiveness of animal advisory messages on dynamic message signs as a speed reduction tool. Transportation Research Record 1973: 64-72. (Pubitemid 46279121)
70. Harris, L. D., and J. Scheck. 1991. From implications to applications: the dispersal corridor principle applied to the conservation of biological diversity. Pages 189-220 in D. A. Saunders and R. J. Hobbs, editors. Nature Conservation 2: the role of corridors. Surrey Beatty, Chipping Norton, Australia.
71. Hayes, S. R. 1976. Daily activity and body temperature of the southern wood-chuck, Marmota monax monax in north-western Arkansas. Journal of Mammalogy 57: 291-299.
72. Hayes, J. P., and R. J. Steidl. 1997. Statistical power analysis and amphibian population trends. Conservation Biology 11: 273-275.
73. Hebblewhite, M., M. Percy, and R. Serrouya. 2003. Black bear (Ursus americanus) survival and demography in the Bow Valley of Banff National Park, Alberta. Biological Conservation 112: 415-425. (Pubitemid 36610554)
74. Hellgren, E. C., D. W. Carney, N. P. Garner, and M. R. Vaughan. 1988. Use of breakaway cotton spacers on radio collars. Wildlife Society Bulletin 16: 216-218.
75. Hellgren, E. C., M. R. Vaughan, and D. F. Stauffer. 1991. Macrohabitat use by black bears in a southeastern wetland. Journal of Wildlife Management 55: 442-448.
76. Homer, C., J. Dewitz, J. Fry, M. Coan, N. Hossain, C. Larson, N. Herold, A. McKerrow, J. N. VanDriel, and J. Wickman. 2007. Completion of the 2001 National land cover database for the conterminous United States. Photographic Engineering and Remote Sensing 73: 337-341. (Pubitemid 46493665)
77. Hosmer, D. W., and S. Lemeshow. 2000. Applied logistic regression. John Wiley and Sons, Inc, New York, New York, USA.
78. Hooge, P. N., and B. Eichenlaub. 1997. Animal movement extension to ArcView version 1.1. Alaska Biological Science Center. U.S. Geological Survey, Anchorage, Alaska, USA.
79. Horne, J. S., and E. O. Garton. 2006. Likelihood cross-validation versus least squares cross-validation for choosing the smoothing parameter in kernel home range analysis. Journal of Wildlife Management 70: 641-648. (Pubitemid 44117134)
80. Hurvich, C. M., and C.-L. Tsai. 1989. Regression and time series model selection in small samples. Biometrika 76: 297-307.
81. Jansen, D., K. Sherwood, and E. Fleming. 2010. The I-75 project: lessons from the Florida panther. Pages 205-221 in J. P. Beckmann, A. P. Clevenger, M. P. Huijser, and J. A. Hilty, editors. Safe passages: highways, wildlife and habitat connectivity. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
82. Janis, M. W., and J. D. Clark. 2002. Response of Florida panthers to recreational deer and hog hunting. Journal of Wildlife Management 66: 839-848. (Pubitemid 34915240)
83. Johnson, K. G., and M. R. Pelton. 1980. Prebaiting and snaring techniques for black bears. Wildlife Society Bulletin 8: 46-54.
84. Jones, M. F., D. Paetkau, E. Geffen, and C. Moritz. 2004. Genetic diversity and population structure of Tasmanian devils, the largest marsupial carnivore. Molecular Ecology 13: 759-778.
85. Jones, M. D., F. T. van Manen, T. W. Wilson, and D. R. Cox. 2010. Establishing effective wildlife underpasses on U.S. Highway 64 in North Carolina: integrating management and science objectives. Pages 223-238 in J. P. Beckmann, A. P. Clevenger, M. P. Huijser, and J. A. Hilty, editors. Safe passages: highways, wildlife and habitat connectivity. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
86. Keller, I., L. Excoffier, and C. R. Largiadér. 2005. Estimation of effective population size and detection of a recent population decline coinciding with habitat fragmentation in a ground beetle. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 18: 90-100.
87. Kendall, K. C., J. B. Stetz, J. Boulanger, A. C. MacLeod, D. Paetkau, and G. C. White, 2009. Demography and genetic structure of a recovering grizzly bear population. Journal of Wildlife Management 73: 3-17.
88. Keyghobadi, N. 2007. The genetic implications of habitat fragmentation for animals. Canadian Journal of Zoology 85: 1049-1064.
89. Kindall, J. L. 2004. Spatial ecology of black bears prior to construction of a 4-lane highway in eastern North Carolina. Thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA.
90. Kindall, J. L., and F. T. van Manen. 2007. Identifying habitat linkages for American black bears in North Carolina, USA. Journal of Wildlife Management 71: 487-495.
91. Knowlton, F. F., P. E. Martin, and J. C. Haug. 1968. A telemetric monitor for determining animal activity. Journal of Wildlife Management 32: 943-948.
92. Koehler, G. M., and D. J. Pierce. 2003. Black bear home range sizes in Washington: climatic, vegetative, and social influences. Journal of Mammalogy 84: 81-91. (Pubitemid 36280752)
93. Kucera, T. E., and R. H. Barrett. 1993. The Trailmaster1 Camera system for detecting wildlife. Wildlife Society Bulletin 21: 505-508. (Pubitemid 2067971)
94. Kuehn, R., K. E. Hindenlan, O. Holzgang, J. Senn, B. Stoeckle, and C. Sperisen. 2007. Genetic effect of transportation infrastructure on roe deer populations (Capreolus capreolus). Journal of Heredity 98: 13-22. (Pubitemid 47355536)
95. Land, E. D., and M. Lotz. 1996. Wildlife crossing designs and use by Florida panthers and other wildlife in southwest Florida. Pages 350-355 in G. L. Evink, P. Garrett, D. Zeigler, and J. Berry, editors. Trends in addressing transportation related wildlife mortality. Proceedings of the Transportation Related Wildlife Mortality Seminar. State of Florida Department of Transp, Tallahassee, USA.
96. Land, E. D., D. S. Maehr, J. C. Roof, and J. W. McCown. 1994. Southwest Florida black bear distribution, movements, and conservation strategy. Final Report, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, Tallahassee, USA.
97. Lande, R. 1988. Genetics and demography in biological conservation. Science 241: 1455-1460. (Pubitemid 19321337)
98. Lee, D. J., and M. R. Vaughan. 2003. Dispersal movements by subadult American black bears in Virginia. Ursus 14: 162-170.
99. Lindzey, F. G., and E. C. Meslow. 1977. Home range and habitat use by black bears in southwestern Washington. Journal of Wildlife Management 41: 413-425.
100. Lodé, T. 2000. Effect of a motorway on mortality and isolation of wildlife populations. Ambio 29: 163-166. (Pubitemid 30343446)
101. Lowe, A., S. Harris, and P. Ashton. 2004. Ecological genetics: design, analysis and application. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, United Kingdom.
102. L-P Tardiff and Associates, Inc. 2003. Collisions involving motor vehicle and large animals in Canada. Final Report to Transport Canada Road Safety Directorate, Nepean, Ontario, Canada.
103. Mace, R. D., J. S. Waller, T. L. Manley, L. J. Lyon, and H. Zuuring. 1996. Relationships among grizzly bears, roads and habitat in the Swan Mountains, Montana. Journal of Applied Ecology 33: 1395-1404.
104. MacKenzie, D. I., and L. L. Bailey. 2004. Assessing the fit of site-occupancy models. Journal of Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Statistics 9: 300-318.
105. MacKenzie, D. I., J. D. Nichols, J. A. Royle, K. H. Pollock, L. L. Bailey, and J. E. Hines. 2006. Occupancy estimation and modeling. Academic Press, Burlington, Massachusetts, USA.
106. Manel, S., O. E. Gaggiotti, and R. S. Waples. 2005. Assignment methods: matching biological questions with appropriate techniques. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20: 136-142. (Pubitemid 40257094)
107. Masters, D. V. 2002. Fine-scale habitat use, activity, and movements of female black bears in north-central Florida. Thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.
108. Matthews, S. M., J. J. Beecham, H. Quigley, S. S. Greenleaf, and H. M. Leithead. 2006. Activity patterns of American black bears in Yosemite National Park. Ursus 17: 30-40. (Pubitemid 43724767)
109. Mazerolle, M. J. 2004. Amphibian road mortality in response to nightly variations in traffic intensity. Herpetologica 60: 45-53. (Pubitemid 38231534)
110. McCollister, M. F. 2008. Impacts of a 4-lane highway on the spatial ecology of black bears and the effectiveness of wildlife underpasses in eastern North Carolina. Thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA.
111. McCollister, M. F., and F. T. van Manen. 2010. Effectiveness of wildlife underpasses and fencing to reduce wildlife-vehicle collisions. Journal of Wildlife Management 74: 1722-1731.
112. McCullagh, P., and J. A. Nelder. 1989. Generalized linear models. Chapman and Hall, New York, New York, USA.
113. McDonald, T. L., W. P. Erickson, and L. McDonald. 2000. Analysis of count data from before-after control-impact studies. Journal of Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Statistics 5: 262-279.
114. McGarigal, K., S. A. Cushman, M. C. Neel, and E. Ene. 2002. FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis program for categorical maps. University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA.
115. McKelvey, K. S., and M. K. Schwartz. 2004. Genetic errors associated with population estimation using noninvasive molecular tagging: problems and new solutions. Journal of Wildlife Management 68: 439-448. (Pubitemid 39033498)
116. McLellan, B. N., and F. W. Hovey. 2001. Natal dispersal of grizzly bears. Canadian Journal of Zoology 79: 838-844. (Pubitemid 32752546)
117. McLellan, B. N., and D. M. Shackleton. 1988. Grizzly bears and resources-extraction industries: effects of roads on behaviour, habitat use and demography. Journal of Applied Ecology 25: 451-460. (Pubitemid 19321355)
118. McLellan, B. N., and D. M. Shackleton. 1989. Grizzly bears and resource-extraction industries: habitat displacement in response to seismic exploration, timber harvesting and road maintenance. Journal of Applied Ecology 26: 371-380. (Pubitemid 20420285)
119. Miller, D. A., M. D. Jones, C. Olfenbuttel, B. D. Hulka, and J. Hughes. 2009. Surveys of black bear hunters on private forest ownerships in eastern North Carolina. Proceedings of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 63: 82-89.
120. Miller, C. R., P. Joyce, and L. P. Waits. 2002. Assessing allelic dropout and genotype reliability using maximum likelihood. Genetics 160: 357-366. (Pubitemid 34118297)
121. Miller, C. R., and L. P. Waits. 2003. The history of effective population size and genetic diversity in the Yellowstone grizzly (Ursus arctos): implication for conservation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100: 4334-4347.
122. Mills, L. S., and F. W. Allendorf. 1996. The one-migrant-per-generation rule in conservation and management. Conservation Biology 10: 1509-1518. (Pubitemid 27233491)
123. Moyer, A. M., J. W. McCown, and M. K. Oli. 2007. Factors influencing home-range size of female Florida black bears. Journal of Mammalogy 88: 468-476. (Pubitemid 46744393)
124. Nams, V. O. 2006. Locate III user's guide. Pacer Computer Software, Tatamagouche, Nova Scotia, Canada.
125. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2001. Climatography of the United States No. 81: monthly station normals of temperature, precipitation, and heating and cooling degree days, 1971-2000: North Carolina. Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, D.C., USA.
126. Newmark, W. D., J. I. Boshe, H. I. Sariko, and G. K. Makumbule. 1996. Effects of a highway on large mammals in Mikumi National Park, Tanzania. Africa Journal of Ecology 34: 15-31.
127. Nicholson, J. M. 2009. Population and genetic impacts of a 4-lane highway on black bears in eastern North Carolina. Thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA.
128. Nicholson, J. M., and F. T. van Manen. 2009. Using occupancy models to determine mammalian responses to landscape changes. Integrative Zoology 4: 232-239.
129. Nielsen, S. E., G. B. Stenhouse, and M. S. Boyce. 2006. A habitat-based framework for grizzly bear conservation in Alberta. Biological Conservation 130: 217-229.
130. Noss, R. F., H. B. Quigley, M. G. Hornocker, T. Merrill, and M. K. Oli. 1996. Conservation biology and carnivore conservation in the Rocky Mountains. Conservation Biology 10: 949-963. (Pubitemid 27048237)
131. Obbard, M. E., E. J. Howe, and C. J. Kyle. 2010. Empirical comparison of density estimators for large carnivores. Journal of Applied Ecology 47: 76-84.
132. Oli, M. K., H. A. Jacobson, and B. D. Leopold. 2002. Pattern of space use by female black bears in the White River National Wildlife Refuge, Arkansas, USA. Journal for Nature Conservation 10: 87-93. (Pubitemid 34870020)
133. Oxley, D. J., M. B. Fenton, and G. R. Carmody. 1974. The effects of roads on populations of small mammals. Journal of Applied Ecology 11: 51-59.
134. Paetkau, D. 2003. An empirical exploration of data quality in DNA-based population inventories. Molecular Ecology 12: 1375-1387. (Pubitemid 36708446)
135. Paetkau, D., W. Calvert, I. Stirling, and C. Strobeck. 1995. Microsatellite analysis of population structure in Canadian polar bears. Molecular Ecology 4: 347-354.
136. Paetkau, D., R. Slade, M. Burden, A. Estoup. 2004. Genetic assignment methods for the direct, real-time estimation of migration rate: a simulation-based exploration of accuracy and power. Molecular Ecology 13: 55-65. (Pubitemid 38106473)
137. Paetkau, D., and C. Strobeck. 1994. Microsatellite analysis of genetic variation in black bears. Molecular Ecology 4: 347-354.
138. Paetkau, D., and C. Strobeck. 1998. Ecological genetic studies of bears using microsatellite analysis. Ursus 10: 299-306.
139. Peacock, E., K. Titus, D. L. Garshelis, M. M. Peacock, and M. Kuc. 2011. Mark-recapture using tetracycline and genetics reveal record-high bear density. Journal of Wildlife Management 75: 1513-1520.
140. Peakall, R., and P. E. Smouse. 2006. GENALEX 6: genetic analysis in Excel. Population genetic software for teaching and research. Molecular Ecology 6: 288-295. (Pubitemid 43373825)
141. Pelton, M. R. 1982. Black bear. Pages 504-514 in J. A. Chapman and G. A. Feldhamer, editors. Wild mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
142. Pimm, S. L., and P. Raven. 2000. Biodiversity: extinction by numbers. Nature 403: 843-845.
143. Piry, S., A. Alapetite, J.-M. Cornuet, D. Paetkau, L. Baudouin, and A. Estoup. 2004. GeneClass2: a software for genetic assignment and first generation migrants detection. Journal of Heredity 95: 536-539. (Pubitemid 39383165)
144. Pitman, E. J. G. 1937. Significance tests which may be applied to samples from any populations. Supplement to the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 4: 119-130.
145. Pledger, S. 2000. Unified maximum likelihood estimates for closed capture-recapture models using mixtures. Biometrics 56: 434-442. (Pubitemid 30422633)
146. Pollock, K. H., S. R. Winterstein, C. M. Bunck, and P. D. Curtis. 1989. Survival analysis in telemetry studies: the staggered entry design. Journal of Wildlife Management 53: 7-15. (Pubitemid 19325318)
147. Powell, R. A. 2000. Animal home ranges and territories and home range estimators. Pages 65-110 in L. Boitani and T. K. Fuller, editors. Research techniques in animal ecology: controversies and consequences. Columbia University, New York, New York, USA.
148. Proctor, M. F., B. N. McLellan, C. Strobeck, and R. M. R. Barclay. 2004. Gender-specific dispersal distances of grizzly bears estimated by genetic analysis. Canadian Journal of Zoology 82: 1108-1118. (Pubitemid 39588118)
149. Proctor, M. F., B. N. McLellan, C. Strobeck, and R. M. R. Barclay. 2005. Genetic analysis reveals demographic fragmentation of grizzly bears yielding vulnerably small populations. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 272: 2409-2416. (Pubitemid 41579368)
150. Proctor, M. F., D. Paetkau, B. N. McLellan, G. Stenhouse, K. C. Kendall, R. D. Mace, W. F. Kasworm, C. Servheen, C. L. Lausen, M. L. Gibeau, W. L. Wakkinen, M. A. Haroldson, G. Mowat, C. D. Apps, L. M. Ciarniello, R. M. R. Barclay, M. S. Boyce, C. C. Schwartz, and C. Strobeck. 2012. Population fragmentation and inter-ecosystem movements of grizzly bears in western Canada and the northern United States. Wildlife Monographs 180.
151. Putman, R. J. 1997. Deer and road traffic accidents: options for management. Journal of Environmental Management 51: 43-57. (Pubitemid 27458589)
152. Quigley, H. B. 1982. Activity patterns, movement ecology, and habitat utilization of black bears in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee. Thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA.
153. Rannala, B., and J. L. Mountain. 1997. Detecting immigration by using mutilocus genotypes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 94: 9197-9201. (Pubitemid 27357806)
154. Raymond, M., and F. Rousset. 1995. GENEPOP (version 1.2): population genetics software for exact tests and ecumenicism. Journal of Heredity 86: 248-249.
155. Reijnen, R., R. Foppen, C. Braak, and J. Thissen. 1995. The effects of car traffic on breeding bird populations in woodland. III. Reduction of density in relation to the proximity of main roads. Journal of Applied Ecology 32: 187-202.
156. Riley, S. P. D., J. P. Pollinger, R. M. Sauvajot, E. C. York, C. Bromley, T. K. Fuller, and R. K. Wayne 2006, A Southern California freeway is a physical and social barrier to gene flow in carnivores. Molecular Ecology 15, 1733-1741. (Pubitemid 43725661)
157. Robinson, D. H., and H. Wainer. 2002. On the past and future of null hypothesis significance testing. Journal of Wildlife Management 66: 263-271.
158. Roedenbeck, I. A., L. Fahrig, C. S. Findlay, J. E. Houlahan, J. A. G. Jaeger, N. Klar, S. Kramer-Schadt, and E. A. van der Grift. 2007. The Rauischholzhausen agenda for road ecology. Ecology and Society 12: 11. 〈http:/www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art11/〉. Accessed 15 Aug 2011.
159. Rogers, L. L. 1977. Social relationships, movements, and population dynamics of black bears in west-central Idaho. International Conference on Bear Research and Management 4: 181-190.
160. Rogers, L. L. 1987. Effects of food supply and kinship on social behavior, movements, and population growth of black bears in northeastern Minnesota. Wildlife Monographs 97.
161. Rolley, R. E., and L. E. Lehman. 1992. Relationships among raccoon road-kill surveys, harvests, and traffic. Wildlife Society Bulletin 20: 313-318.
162. Romin, L. A., and J. A. Bissonette. 1996a. Deer-vehicle collisions: status of state monitoring activities and mitigation efforts. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24: 276-283.
163. Romin, L. A., and J. A. Bissonette. 1996b. Temporal and spatial distribution of highway mortality of mule deer on newly constructed roads at Jordanelle Reservoir, Utah. Great Basin Naturalist 56: 1-11.
164. Ruediger, B. 1998. Rare carnivores and highways: moving into the 21st century. Pages 10-16 in G. L. Evink, P. Garrett, D. Zeigler, and J. Berry, editors. Proceedings of the International Conference on Wildlife Ecology and Transportation. FL-ER-69-98, Florida Department of Transportation, Tallahassee, USA.
165. Sala, O. E., F. S. Chapin, J. J. Armesto, R. Berlow, J. Bloomfield, R. Dirzo, E. Huber-Sanwald, L. F. Huenneke, R. B. Jackson, A. Kinzig, R. Leemans, D. Lodge, H. A. Mooney, M. Oesterheld, N. L. Poff, M. T. Sykes, B. H. Walker, M. Walker, and D. H. Wall. 2000. Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science 287: 1770-1774. (Pubitemid 30143956)
166. Sandell, M. 1989. The mating tactics and spacing patterns of solitary carnivores. Pages 164-182 in J. L. Gittleman, editor. Carnivore behaviour, ecology, and evolution. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, USA.
167. Sanderson, E. W., M. Jaiteh, M. A. Levy, K. H. Redford, A. V. Wannebo, and G. Woolmer. 2002. The human footprint and the last of the wild. BioScience 52: 891-904. (Pubitemid 35181479)
168. Sarbello, W., and L. W. Jackson. 1985. Deer mortality in the town of Malone. New York Fish and Game Journal 32: 141-157.
169. SAS Institute. 2005. SAS/Stat users guide, version 9.1. SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina, USA.
170. Schmutz, J. A., and G. C. White. 1990. Error in telemetry studies: effects of animal movement on triangulation. Journal of Wildlife Management 54: 506-510.
171. Schwartz, C. C., S. L. Cain, S. Podruzny, S. Cherry, and L. Frattaroli. 2010a. Contrasting activity patterns of sympatric and allopatric black and grizzly bears. Journal of Wildlife Management 74: 1628-1638.
172. Schwartz, C. C., and A. W. Franzmann. 1992. Dispersal and survival of subadult black bears from the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management 56: 426-431. (Pubitemid 23395887)
173. Schwartz, C. C., M. A. Haroldson, and G. C. White. 2010b. Hazards affecting grizzly bear survival in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Journal of Wildlife Management 74: 654-667.
174. Seaman, D. E., J. J. Millspaugh, B. J. Kernohan, G. C. Brundige, K. J. Raedeke, and R. A. Gitzen. 1999. Effects of sample size on kernel home range estimates. Journal of Wildlife Management 63: 739-747. (Pubitemid 29194940)
175. Seaman, D. E., and R. A. Powell. 1996. An evaluation of the accuracy of kernel density estimators for home range analysis. Ecology 77: 2075-2085.
176. Settlage, K. E., F. T. van Manen, J. D. Clark, and T. L. King. 2008. Challenges of DNA-based mark-recapture studies of American black bears. Journal of Wildlife Management 72: 1035-1042. (Pubitemid 351656379)
177. Shikano, T., T. Chiyokubo, and N. Taniguchi. 2001. Temporal changes in allele frequency, genetic variation and inbreeding depression in small populations of the guppy (Poecilia reticulate). Heredity 86: 153-160. (Pubitemid 32540482)
178. Sielecki, L. E. 2004. WARS 1983-2002-Wildlife accident reporting and mitigation in British Columbia: special annual report. Ministry of Transportation, Engineering Branch, Environmental Management, Section, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
179. Simberloff, D. 1999. Biodiversity and bears-a conservation paradigm shift. Ursus 11: 21-28.
180. Simpson, E. H. 1949. Measure of diversity. Nature 163: 688.
181. Siramie, C., L. Brotons, and J. L. Martin. 2008. Spatial extent of bird species response to landscape changes: colonisation/extinction dynamics at the community-level in two contrasting habitats. Ecography 31: 509-518.
182. Slatkin, M. 1987. Gene flow and the geographic structure of natural populations. Science 236: 787-792. (Pubitemid 17071150)
183. Smith, T. R., and M. R. Pelton. 1990. Home ranges and movements of black bears in bottomland hardwood forest in Arkansas. International Conference on Bear Research and Management 8: 213-218.
184. Sokal, R. R., and F. J. Rohlf. 1995. Biometry. Third edition. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California, USA.
185. Spellerberg, I. F. 1998. Ecological effects of roads and traffic: a literature review. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 7: 317-333.
186. Spiegelhalter, D. J., N. G. Best, B. R. Carlin, and A. van der Linde. 2002. Bayesian measures of model complexity and fit. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B: Statistical Methodology 64: 583-616.
187. State Climate Office of North Carolina. 2011. Climate division data. 〈http://www.nc-climate.ncsu.edu/climate/climdiv.php〉. Accessed 2 Aug 2011.
188. Steidl, R. J., J. P. Hayes, and E. Schauber. 1997. Statistical power analysis in wildlife research. Journal of Wildlife Management 61: 270-279.
189. Stewart-Oaten, A., W. W. Murdock, and K. R. Parker. 1986. Environmental impact assessment: pseudoreplication in time. Ecology 67: 929-940.
190. Støen, O., A. Zedrosser, S. Sæbø, and J. E. Swenson. 2006. Inversely density-dependent natal dispersal in brown bears Ursus arctos. Oecologia 148: 356-364. (Pubitemid 43943398)
191. Sullivan, T. L., and T. A. Messmer. 2003. Perceptions of deer-vehicle collision management by state wildlife agency and department of transportation administrators. Wildlife Society Bulletin 31: 63-73.
192. Sunquist, M. E. 1974. Winter activity of striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) in east-central Minnesota. American Midland Naturalist 92: 434-446.
193. Taberlet, P., and G. Luikart. 1999. Non-invasive genetic sampling and individual identification. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 68: 41-55. (Pubitemid 29485512)
194. Telesco, D. J., and F. T. van Manen. 2006. Do black bears respond to military weapons training? Journal of Wildlife Management 70: 222-230.
195. Thatcher, C. A., F. T. van Manen, and J. D. Clark. 2009. A habitat assessment for Florida panther population expansion into central Florida. Journal of Mammalogy 90: 918-925.
196. Thompson, L. M. 2003. Abundance and genetic structure of two black bear populations prior to highway construction in eastern North Carolina. Thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA.
197. Thompson, L. M., F. T. van Manen, and T. L. King. 2005. Geostatistical analysis of allele presence patterns among American black bears in eastern North Carolina. Ursus 16: 59-69.
198. Tredick, C. A., and M. R. Vaughan. 2009. DNA-based population demographics of black bears in coastal North Carolina and Virginia. Journal of Wildlife Management 73: 1031-1039.
199. Trombulak, F. C., and C. Frissell. 2000. Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conservation Biology 14: 19-29.
200. U.S. Census Bureau. 2002. United States Census 2000. U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, D.C., USA. 〈http://www.census.gov/main/www/cen2000. html〉. Accessed 2 Oct 2008.
201. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1999. Multi-species recovery plan for South Florida. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Vero Beach, Florida, USA.
202. van Langevelde, F., and C. F. Jaarsma. 2004. Using traffic flow theory to model traffic mortality in mammals. Landscape Ecology 19: 895-907.
203. van Manen, F. T., M. D. Jones, J. L. Kindall, L. M. Thompson, and B. K. Scheick. 2001. Determining the potential mitigation effects of wildlife passageways on black bears. Pages 435-446 in Proceedings of the International Conference on Ecology and Transportation. Center for Transportation and the Environment, 24-28 September 2001, Keystone, Colorado, USA.
204. Waits, L. P., G. Luikart, and P. Taberlet. 2001. Estimating the probability of identity among genotypes in natural populations: cautions and guidelines. Molecular Ecology 10: 249-256. (Pubitemid 32097545)
205. Weaver, J. L., P. C. Paquet, and L. F. Ruggiero. 1996. Resilience and conservation of large carnivores in the Rocky Mountains. Conservation Biology 10: 964-976. (Pubitemid 27048222)
206. Wertz, T. L., J. J. Akenson, M. G. Henjum, and E. L. Bull. 2001. Home range and dispersal patterns of subadult black bears in northeastern Oregon. Western Black Bear Workshop 7: 93-100.
207. White, G. C., and K. P. Burnham. 1999. Program MARK: survival estimation from populations of marked animals. Bird Study 46: 120-138.
208. White, G. C., K. P. Burnham, and D. R. Anderson. 2001. Advanced features of program MARK. Pages 368-376 in R. Fields, editor. Integrating people and wildlife for a sustainable future: proceedings of the second international wildlife management congress, Gödölló, Hungary. The Wildlife Society, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
209. Wilcox, B. A., and D. D. Murphy. 1985. The effects of fragmentation on extinction. American Naturalist 125: 879-887.
210. Willey, C. H. 1974. Aging black bears from first premolar tooth sections. Journal of Wildlife Management 38: 97-100.
211. Wilson, D. J., M. G. Efford, S. J. Brown, J. F. Williamson, and G. J. McElrea. 2007. Estimating density of ship rats in New Zealand forests by capture-mark-recapture trapping. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 31: 47-59. (Pubitemid 350090044)
212. Wilson, G. A., and B. Rannala. 2003. Bayesian inference of recent migration rates using multilocus genotypes. Genetics 163: 1177-1191. (Pubitemid 36417957)
213. Wollebæk, J., J. Heggenes, and K. H. Røed. 2011. Population connectivity: dam migration mitigations and contemporary site fidelity in arctic char. BMC Evolutionary Biology 11: 207.
214. Wooding, J. B., and T. S. Hardisky. 1994. Home range, habitat use, and mortality of black bears in north-central Florida. International Conference on Bear Research and Management 9: 349-356.
215. Wooding, J. B., and R. C. Maddrey. 1994. Impacts of roads on black bears. Eastern Workshop Black Bear Research and Management 12: 124-129.
216. Woodruff, R., and J. R. Ginsberg. 2000. Ranging behaviour and vulnerability to extinction in carnivores. Pages 125-141 in L. M. Gosling and W. J. Sutherland, editors. Behaviour and conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
217. Worton, B. J. 1989. Kernel methods for estimating the utilization distribution in home range studies. Ecology 70: 164-168. (Pubitemid 20418153)
218. Worton, B. J. 1995. Using Monte Carlo simulation to evaluate kernel-based home range estimators. Journal of Wildlife Management 59: 794-800. (Pubitemid 26469993)