Management of hyperglycemia in hospitalized patients in non-critical care setting: An endocrine society clinical practice guideline

Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism

Volumn 97, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 16-38

  Umpierrez, Guillermo E ^a   Hellman, Richard ^b   Korytkowski, Mary T ^c   Kosiborod, Mikhail ^d   Maynard, Gregory A ^e   Montori, Victor M ^f   Seley, Jane J ^g   Van Den Berghe, Greet ^h  

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI KANSAS CITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI KANSAS CITY   (United States)

^e UCSD MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^f MAYO CLINIC ROCHESTER   (United States)

^g WEILL CORNELL MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^h UNIVERSITY OF LEUVEN   (Belgium)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GLUCOCORTICOID; INSULIN; SHORT ACTING INSULIN;

BLOOD GLUCOSE MONITORING; CLINICAL PRACTICE; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET THERAPY; EVIDENCE BASED PRACTICE; GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HOSPITAL PATIENT; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; INSULIN TREATMENT; INTENSIVE CARE; MEDICAL EDUCATION; PATIENT ASSESSMENT; PATIENT MONITORING; PERIOPERATIVE PERIOD; POINT OF CARE TESTING; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE; REVIEW; TREATMENT DURATION;

BLOOD GLUCOSE SELF-MONITORING; CONTINUITY OF PATIENT CARE; CRITICAL CARE; ENDOCRINOLOGY; EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMANS; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS; INPATIENTS; INSULIN; INTRAOPERATIVE CARE; MONITORING, PHYSIOLOGIC; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; SOCIETIES, MEDICAL;

EID: 84855512361     PISSN: 0021972X     EISSN: 19457197     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1210/jc.2011-2098     Document Type: Review

References (162)

1. Atkins D, Best D, Briss PA, Eccles M, Falck-Ytter Y, Flottorp S, Guyatt GH, Harbour RT, Haugh MC, Henry D, Hill S, Jaeschke R, Leng G, Liberati A, Magrini N, Mason J, Middleton P, Mrukowicz J, O'Connell D, Oxman AD, Phillips B, Schünemann HJ, Edejer TT, Varonen H, Vist GE, Williams Jr JW, Zaza S 2004 Grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ 328:1490
2. Swiglo BA, Murad MH, Schünemann HJ, Kunz R, Vigersky RA, Guyatt GH, Montori VM 2008 A case for clarity, consistency, and helpfulness: state-of-the-art clinical practice guidelines in endocrinology using the grading of recommendations, assessment, development, and evaluation system. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:666-673 (Pubitemid 351398536)
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2011 National diabetes fact sheet: national estimates and general information on diabetes and prediabetes in the United States. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
4. Heron M, Hoyert DL, Murphy SL, Xu J, Kochanek KD, Tejada-Vera B 2009 Deaths: final data for 2006. Natl Vital Stat Rep 57: 1-134
5. Elixhauser A, Yu K, Steiner C, Bierman AS 2000 1997 Hospitalization in the United States. Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project fact book no. 1; AHRQ publication no. 00-0031. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
6. Umpierrez GE, Isaacs SD, Bazargan N, You X, Thaler LM, Kitabchi AE 2002 Hyperglycemia: an independent marker of in-hospital mortality in patients with undiagnosed diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:978-982 (Pubitemid 36121050)
7. Jiang HJ, Stryer D, Friedman B, Andrews R 2003 Multiple hospitalizations for patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 26:1421-1426 (Pubitemid 36929173)
8. Kamel HK, Rodriguez-Saldaña J, Flaherty JH, Miller DK 1999 Diabetes mellitus among ethnic seniors: contrasts with diabetes in whites. Clin Geriatr Med 15:265-278 (Pubitemid 29235184)
9. Morley JE 1999 An overview of diabetes mellitus in older persons. Clin Geriatr Med 15:211-224 (Pubitemid 29235180)
10. Capes SE, Hunt D, Malmberg K, Gerstein HC 2000 Stress hyperglycaemia and increased risk of death after myocardial infarction in patients with and without diabetes: a systematic overview. Lancet 355:773-778 (Pubitemid 30128815)
11. Capes SE, Hunt D, Malmberg K, Pathak P, Gerstein HC 2001 Stress hyperglycemia and prognosis of stroke in nondiabetic and diabetic patients: a systematic overview. Stroke 32:2426-2432 (Pubitemid 32954818)
12. Falciglia M, Freyberg RW, Almenoff PL, D'Alessio DA, Render ML 2009 Hyperglycemia-related mortality in critically ill patients varies with admission diagnosis. Crit Care Med 37:3001-3009
13. Kosiborod M, Inzucchi SE, Spertus JA, Wang Y, Masoudi FA, Havranek EP, Krumholz HM 2009 Elevated admission glucose and mortality in elderly patients hospitalized with heart failure. Circulation 119:1899-1907
14. Kosiborod M, Rathore SS, Inzucchi SE, Masoudi FA, Wang Y, Havranek EP, Krumholz HM 2005 Admission glucose and mortality in elderly patients hospitalized with acute myocardial infarction: implications for patients with and without recognized diabetes. Circulation 111:3078-3086 (Pubitemid 40847785)
15. Baker EH, Janaway CH, Philips BJ, Brennan AL, Baines DL, Wood DM, Jones PW 2006 Hyperglycaemia is associated with poor outcomes in patients admitted to hospital with acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 61:284-289
16. Clement S, Braithwaite SS, Magee MF, Ahmann A, Smith EP, Schafer RG, Hirsch IB, Hirsh IB 2004 Management of diabetes and hyperglycemia in hospitals. Diabetes Care 27:553-591 (Pubitemid 38174086)
17. McAlister FA, Majumdar SR, Blitz S, Rowe BH, Romney J, Marrie TJ 2005 The relation between hyperglycemia and outcomes in 2,471 patients admitted to the hospital with community-acquired pneumonia. Diabetes Care 28:810-815 (Pubitemid 40434478)
18. McAlister FA, Man J, Bistritz L, Amad H, Tandon P 2003 Diabetes and coronary artery bypass surgery: an examination of perioperative glycemic control and outcomes. Diabetes Care 26:1518-1524 (Pubitemid 36929189)
19. Pomposelli JJ, Baxter 3rd JK, Babineau TJ, Pomfret EA, Driscoll DF, Forse RA, Bistrian BR 1998 Early postoperative glucose control predicts nosocomial infection rate in diabetic patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 22:77-81 (Pubitemid 28117569)
20. Moghissi ES, Korytkowski MT, DiNardo M, Einhorn D, Hellman R, Hirsch IB, Inzucchi SE, Ismail-Beigi F, Kirkman MS, Umpierrez GE 2009 American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American Diabetes Association consensus statement on inpatient glycemic control. Diabetes Care 32:1119-1131
21. Moghissi ES, Korytkowski MT, DiNardo M, Einhorn D, Hellman R, Hirsch IB, Inzucchi SE, Ismail-Beigi F, Kirkman MS, Umpierrez GE 2009 American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American Diabetes Association consensus statement on inpatient glycemic control. Endocr Pract 15:353-369
22. Dungan KM, Braithwaite SS, Preiser JC 2009 Stress hyperglycaemia. Lancet 373:1798-1807
23. Mizock BA 2003 Blood glucose management during critical illness. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 4:187-194 (Pubitemid 36547098)
24. Cook CB, Kongable GL, Potter DJ, Abad VJ, Leija DE, Anderson M 2009 Inpatient glucose control: a glycemic survey of 126 U.S. hospitals. J Hosp Med 4:E7-E14
25. Schmeltz LR, DeSantis AJ, Thiyagarajan V, Schmidt K, O'Shea-Mahler E, Johnson D, Henske J, McCarthy PM, Gleason TG, McGee EC, Molitch ME 2007 Reduction of surgical mortality and morbidity in diabetic patients undergoing cardiac surgery with a combined intravenous and subcutaneous insulin glucose management strategy. Diabetes Care 30:823-828 (Pubitemid 46556574)
26. van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, Verwaest C, Bruyninckx F, Schetz M, Vlasselaers D, Ferdinande P, Lauwers P, Bouillon R 2001 Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 345:1359-1367
27. De La Rosa Gdel C, Donado JH, Restrepo AH, Quintero AM, González LG, Saldarriaga NE, Bedoya M, Toro JM, Velásquez JB, Valencia JC, Arango CM, Aleman PH, Vasquez EM, Chavarriaga JC, Yepes A, Pulido W, Cadavid CA 2008 Strict glycaemic control in patients hospitalised in a mixed medical and surgical intensive care unit: a randomised clinical trial. Crit Care 12:R120
28. Inzucchi SE 2006 Clinical practice. Management of hyperglycemia in the hospital setting. N Engl J Med 355:1903-1911 (Pubitemid 44664648)
29. Preiser JC, Devos P, Ruiz-Santana S, Mélot C, Annane D, Groeneveld J, Iapichino G, Leverve X, Nitenberg G, Singer P, Wernerman J, Joannidis M, Stecher A, Chioléro R 2009 A prospective randomised multi-centre controlled trial on tight glucose control by intensive insulin therapy in adult intensive care units: the Glucontrol Study. Intensive Care Med 35:1738-1748
30. Van den Berghe G, Wilmer A, Hermans G, Meersseman W, Wouters PJ, Milants I, Van Wijngaerden E, Bobbaers H, Bouillon R 2006 Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl J Med 354: 449-461 (Pubitemid 43200296)
31. American Diabetes Association 2011 Standards of medical care in diabetes. Diabetes Care 34(Suppl 1):S11-S61
32. Ainla T, Baburin A, Teesalu R, Rahu M 2005 The association between hyperglycaemia on admission and 180-day mortality in acute myocardial infarction patients with and without diabetes. Diabet Med 22:1321-1325 (Pubitemid 41391305)
33. Umpierrez GE, Smiley D, Jacobs S, Peng L, Temponi A, Mulligan P, Umpierrez D, Newton C, Olson D, Rizzo M 2011 Randomized study of basal bolus insulin therapy in the inpatient management of patients with type 2 diabetes undergoing general surgery (rabbit surgery). Diabetes Care 34:256-261
34. Furnary AP, Gao G, Grunkemeier GL, Wu Y, Zerr KJ, Bookin SO, Floten HS, Starr A 2003 Continuous insulin infusion reduces mortality in patients with diabetes undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 125:1007-1021 (Pubitemid 36644877)
35. Umpierrez GE, Smiley D, Zisman A, Prieto LM, Palacio A, Ceron M, Puig A, Mejia R 2007 Randomized study of basal-bolus insulin therapy in the inpatient management of patients with type 2 diabetes (Rabbit 2 Trial). Diabetes Care 30:2181-2186 (Pubitemid 47359011)
36. Boyd JC, Bruns DE 2001 Quality specifications for glucose meters: assessment by simulation modeling of errors in insulin dose. Clin Chem 47:209-214 (Pubitemid 32142918)
37. Scott MG, Bruns DE, Boyd JC, Sacks DB 2009 Tight glucose control in the intensive care unit: are glucose meters up to the task? Clin Chem 55:18-20
38. Norhammar A, Tenerz A, Nilsson G, Hamsten A, Efendíc S, Rydén L, Malmberg K 2002 Glucose metabolism in patients with acute myocardial infarction and no previous diagnosis of diabetes mellitus: a prospective study. Lancet 359:2140-2144 (Pubitemid 34694020)
39. Buell C, Kermah D, Davidson MB 2007 Utility of A1c for diabetes screening in the 1999-2004 NHANES population. Diabetes Care 30:2233-2235 (Pubitemid 47359021)
40. Kramer CK, Araneta MR, Barrett-Connor E 2010 A1c and diabetes diagnosis: the Rancho Bernardo Study. Diabetes Care 33: 101-103
41. Greci LS, Kailasam M, Malkani S, Katz DL, Hulinsky I, Ahmadi R, Nawaz H 2003 Utility of Hba(1c) levels for diabetes case finding in hospitalized patients with hyperglycemia. Diabetes Care 26: 1064-1068 (Pubitemid 36929249)
42. Fonseca V 2006 Newly diagnosed diabetes/hyperglycemia in hospitals: what should we do? Endocr Pract 12(Suppl 3):108-111 (Pubitemid 44963602)
43. O'Malley CW, Emanuele M, Halasyamani L, Amin AN 2008 Bridge over troubled waters: safe and effective transitions of the inpatient with hyperglycemia. J Hosp Med 3(5 Suppl):55-65
44. Lauster CD, Gibson JM, Dinella JV, Dinardo M, Korytkowski MT, Donihi AC 2009 Implementation of standardized instructions for insulin at hospital discharge. J Hosp Med 4:E41-E42
45. Saudek CD, Derr RL, Kalyani RR 2006 Assessing glycemia in diabetes using self-monitoring blood glucose and hemoglobin A1c. JAMA 295:1688-1697
46. Curll M, Dinardo M, Noschese M, Korytkowski MT 2010 Menu selection, glycaemic control and satisfaction with standard and patient-controlled consistent carbohydrate meal plans in hospitalised patients with diabetes. Qual Saf Health Care 19:355-359
47. Lubitz CC, Seley JJ, Rivera C, Sinha N, Brillon DJ 2007 The perils of inpatient hyperglycemia management: how we turned apathy into action. Diabetes Spectrum 20:18-21 (Pubitemid 46395917)
48. Seley JJ, D'hondt N, Longo R, Manchester C, McKnight K, Olson L, Rogers S 2009 AADE position statement: inpatient glycemic control. TDE 35(Suppl 3):64S-68S
49. Juneja R, Foster SA, Whiteman D, Fahrbach JL 2010 The nuts and bolts of subcutaneous insulin therapy in non-critical care hospital settings. Postgrad Med 122:153-162
50. Smiley D, Rhee M, Peng L, Roediger L, Mulligan P, Satterwhite L, Bowen P, Umpierrez GE 2010 Safety and efficacy of continuous insulin infusion in noncritical care settings. J HospMed5:212-217
51. Donihi AC, Raval D, Saul M, Korytkowski MT, DeVita MA 2006 Prevalence and predictors of corticosteroid-related hyperglycemia in hospitalized patients. Endocr Pract 12:358-362 (Pubitemid 44717593)
52. American Diabetes Association 2010 Standards of medical care in diabetes-2010. Diabetes Care 33(Suppl 1):S11-S61
53. Dungan K, Chapman J, Braithwaite SS, Buse J 2007 Glucose measurement: confounding issues in setting targets for inpatient management. Diabetes Care 30:403-409 (Pubitemid 46198356)
54. Cook CB, Castro JC, Schmidt RE, Gauthier SM, Whitaker MD, Roust LR, Argueta R, Hull BP, Zimmerman RS 2007 Diabetes care in hospitalized noncritically ill patients: more evidence for clinical inertia and negative therapeutic momentum. J Hosp Med 2:203-211 (Pubitemid 47377265)
55. Vlasselaers D, Herpe TV, Milants I, Eerdekens M, Wouters PJ, Moor BD, den Berghe GV 2008 Blood glucose measurements in arterial blood of intensive care unit patients submitted to tight glycemic control: agreement between bedside tests. J Diabetes Sci Technol 2:932-938
56. Cembrowski GS, Tran DV, Slater-Maclean L, Chin D, Gibney RT, Jacka M 2010 Could susceptibility to low hematocrit interference have compromised the results of the nice-sugar trial? Clin Chem 56:1193-1195
57. Holzinger U, Warszawska J, Kitzberger R, Herkner H, Metnitz PG, Madl C 2009 Impact of shock requiring norepinephrine on the accuracy and reliability of subcutaneous continuous glucose monitoring. Intensive Care Med 35:1383-1389
58. Holzinger U, Warszawska J, Kitzberger R, Wewalka M, Miehsler W, Herkner H, Madl C 2010 Real-time continuous glucose monitoring in critically ill patients: a prospective randomized trial. Diabetes Care 33:467-472
59. Murad MH, Coburn J, Coto-Yglesias F, Dzyubak S, Hazem A, Lane M, Prokop L, Montori V 2012 Glycemic control in non-critically ill hospitalized patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clinical Endocrinol Metab 97:49-58
60. Schafer RG, Bohannon B, Franz MJ, Freeman J, Holmes A, Mclaughlin S, Haas LB, Kruger DF, Lorenz RA, McMahon MM 2003 Translation of the diabetes nutrition recommendations for health care institutions. Diabetes Care 26(Suppl 1):S70-S72 (Pubitemid 36928960)
61. Gosmanov AR, Umpierrez GE 14 October 2011 Medical nutrition therapy in hospitalized patients with diabetes. Curr Diab Rep 10.1007/s11892-011-0236-5
62. Schafer RG, Bohannon B, Franz M, Freeman J, Holmes A, McLaughlin S, Haas LB, Kruger DF, Lorenz RA, McMahon MM 1997 Translation of the diabetes nutrition recommendations for health care institutions. Diabetes Care 20:96-105 (Pubitemid 27020050)
63. Boucher JL, Swift CS, Franz MJ, Kulkarni K, Schafer RG, Pritchett E, Clark NG 2007 Inpatient management of diabetes and hyperglycemia: implications for nutrition practice and the food and nutrition professional. J Am Diet Assoc 107:105-111 (Pubitemid 46013808)
64. Schafer RG, Bohannon B, Franz MJ, Freeman J, Holmes A, Mclaughlin S, Haas LB, Kruger DF, Lorenz RA, McMahon MM 2004 Diabetes nutrition recommendations for health care institutions. Diabetes Care 27(Suppl 1):S55-S57
65. Ziegler TR 2009 Parenteral nutrition in the critically ill patient. N Engl J Med 361:1088-1097
66. 2002 American Diabetes Association Position Statement: evidence-based nutrition principles and recommendations for the treatment and prevention of diabetes and related complications. J Am Diet Assoc 102:109-118
67. American Diabetes Association 2002 Evidence-based nutrition principles and recommendations for the treatment and prevention of diabetes and related complications. Diabetes Care 25:202-212
68. Dinardo M, Griffin C, Curll M 2005 Outpatient surgery. A guide for people with diabetes. Diabetes Forecast 58:50-54
69. Umpierrez GE, Hor T, Smiley D, Temponi A, Umpierrez D, Ceron M, Munoz C, Newton C, Peng L, Baldwin D 2009 Comparison of inpatient insulin regimens with detemir plus aspart versus neutral protamine Hagedorn plus regular in medical patients with type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:564-569
70. Bolen S, Feldman L, Vassy J, Wilson L, Yeh HC, Marinopoulos S, Wiley C, Selvin E, Wilson R, Bass EB, Brancati FL 2007 Systematic review: comparative effectiveness and safety of oral medications for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 147:386-399 (Pubitemid 351664540)
71. Calabrese AT, Coley KC, DaPos SV, Swanson D, Rao RH 2002 Evaluation of prescribing practices: risk of lactic acidosis with metformin therapy. Arch Intern Med 162:434-437 (Pubitemid 34150645)
72. Sharabash HM, Remington TL, Mar P, Winston R, Walker PC 2006 Retrospective review of metformin in inpatients and outpatients at the University of Michigan. Diabetes Care 29:170-171 (Pubitemid 44033457)
73. Scotton DW, Wierman H, Coughlan A, Walters M, Kuhn C 2009 Assessing the appropriate use of metformin in an inpatient setting and the effectiveness of two pharmacy-based measures to improve guideline adherence. Qual Manag Health Care 18:71-76
74. Korytkowski MT, Salata RJ, Koerbel GL, Selzer F, Karslioglu E, Idriss AM, Lee KK, Moser AJ, Toledo FG 2009 Insulin therapy and glycemic control in hospitalized patients with diabetes during enteral nutrition therapy: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Diabetes Care 32:594-596
75. Umpierrez GE, Jones S, Smiley D, Mulligan P, Keyler T, Temponi A, Semakula C, Umpierrez D, Peng L, Cerón M, Robalino G 2009 Insulin analogs versus human insulin in the treatment of patients with diabetic ketoacidosis: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care 32:1164-1169
76. Kosiborod M, Inzucchi SE, Goyal A, Krumholz HM, Masoudi FA, Xiao L, Spertus JA 2009 Relationship between spontaneous and iatrogenic hypoglycemia and mortality in patients hospitalized with acute myocardial infarction. JAMA 301:1556-1564
77. Noschese ML, DiNardo MM, Donihi AC, Gibson JM, Koerbel GL, Saul M, Stefanovic-Racic M, Korytkowski MT 2009 Patient outcomes after implementation of a protocol for inpatient insulin pump therapy. Endocr Pract 15:415-424
78. Maynard G, Lee J, Phillips G, Fink E, Renvall M 2009 Improved inpatient use of basal insulin, reduced hypoglycemia, and improved glycemic control: effect of structured subcutaneous insulin orders and an insulin management algorithm. J Hosp Med 4:3-15
79. Maynard G, Wesorick DH, O'Malley C, Inzucchi SE 2008 Subcutaneous insulin order sets and protocols: effective design and implementation strategies. J Hosp Med 3:29-41
80. Hirsch IB 2009 Sliding scale insulin-time to stop sliding. JAMA 301:213-214
81. Queale WS, Seidler AJ, Brancati FL 1997 Glycemic control and sliding scale insulin use in medical inpatients with diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med 157:545-552 (Pubitemid 27102713)
82. Umpierrez GE, Palacio A, Smiley D 2007 Sliding scale insulin use: myth or insanity? Am J Med 120:563-567 (Pubitemid 46977315)
83. Magee MF 2007 Hospital protocols for targeted glycemic control: development, implementation, and models for cost justification. Am J Health Syst Pharm 64(10 Suppl 6):S15-S20 (Pubitemid 46801526)
84. Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Miles JM, Fisher JN 2009 Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 32: 1335-1343
85. Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Murphy MB, Barrett EJ, Kreisberg RA, Malone JI, Wall BM 2001 Management of hyperglycemic crises in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 24:131-153 (Pubitemid 32106687)
86. Cook CB, Boyle ME, Cisar NS, Miller-Cage V, Bourgeois P, Roust LR, Smith SA, Zimmerman RS 2005 Use of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (insulin pump) therapy in the hospital setting: proposed guidelines and outcome measures. Diabetes Educ 31:849-857 (Pubitemid 41771878)
87. Bailon RM, Partlow BJ, Miller-Cage V, Boyle ME, Castro JC, Bourgeois PB, Cook CB 2009 Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (insulin pump) therapy can be safely used in the hospital in select patients. Endocr Pract 15:24-29
88. Schnipper JL, Magee M, Larsen K, Inzucchi SE, Maynard G 2008 Society of Hospital Medicine Glycemic Control Task Force Summary: practical recommendations for assessing the impact of glycemic control efforts. J Hosp Med 3:66-75
89. Cook CB, Seifert KM, Hull BP, Hovan MJ, Charles JC, Miller-Cage V, Boyle ME, Harris JK, Magallanez JM, Littman SD 2009 Inpatient to outpatient transfer of diabetes care: planing for an effective hospital discharge. Endocr Pract 15:263-269
90. Schmeltz LR, DeSantis AJ, Schmidt K, O'Shea-Mahler E, Rhee C, Brandt S, Peterson S, Molitch ME 2006 Conversion of intravenous insulin infusions to subcutaneously administered insulin glargine in patients with hyperglycemia. Endocr Pract 12:641-650
91. Rea RS, Donihi AC, Bobeck M, Herout P, McKaveney TP, Kane-Gill SL, Korytkowski MT 2007 Implementing an intravenous insulin infusion protocol in the intensive care unit. Am J Health Syst Pharm 64:385-395 (Pubitemid 46280380)
92. Yeldandi RR, Lurie A, Baldwin D 2006 Comparison of once-daily glargine insulin with twice-daily NPH/regular insulin for control of hyperglycemia in inpatients after cardiovascular surgery. Diabetes Technol Ther 8:609-616 (Pubitemid 44871490)
93. Ramos P, Childers D, Maynard G, Box K, Namba J, Stadalman K, Renvall M 2010 Maintaining glycemic control when transitioning from infusion insulin: a protocol-driven, multidisciplinary approach. J Hosp Med 5:446-451
94. Bode BW, Braithwaite SS, Steed RD, Davidson PC 2004 Intravenous insulin infusion therapy: indications, methods, and transition to subcutaneous insulin therapy. Endocr Pract 10(Suppl 2):71-80
95. Correia MI, Waitzberg DL 2003 The impact of malnutrition on morbidity, mortality, length of hospital stay and costs evaluated through a multivariate model analysis. Clin Nutr 22:235-239 (Pubitemid 36701637)
96. Martindale RG, Cresci G 2005 Preventing infectious complications with nutrition intervention. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 29:S53-S56
97. Strickland A, Brogan A, Krauss J, Martindale R, Cresci G 2005 Is the use of specialized nutritional formulations a cost-effective strategy? A national database evaluation. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 29:S81-S91
98. Waitzberg DL, Torrinhas RS, Jacintho TM 2006 New parenteral lipid emulsions for clinical use. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 30: 351-367
99. Marik PE, Raghavan M 2004 Stress-hyperglycemia, insulin and immunomodulation in sepsis. Intensive Care Med 30:748-756 (Pubitemid 38639464)
100. Pancorbo-Hidalgo PL, García-Fernandez FP, Ramírez- Pérez C 2001 Complications associated with enteral nutrition by nasogastric tube in an internal medicine unit. J Clin Nurs 10:482-490 (Pubitemid 33754775)
101. Umpierrez GE 2009 Basal versus sliding-scale regular insulin in hospitalized patients with hyperglycemia during enteral nutrition therapy. Diabetes Care 32:751-753
102. Lin LY, Lin HC, Lee PC, Ma WY, Lin HD 2007 Hyperglycemia correlates with outcomes in patients receiving total parenteral nutrition. Am J Med Sci 333:261-265
103. Cheung NW, Napier B, Zaccaria C, Fletcher JP 2005 Hyperglycemia is associated with adverse outcomes in patients receiving total parenteral nutrition. Diabetes Care 28:2367-2371 (Pubitemid 41384278)
104. der Voort PH, Feenstra RA, Bakker AJ, Heide L, Boerma EC, van der Horst IC 2006 Intravenous glucose intake independently related to intensive care unit and hospital mortality: an argument for glucose toxicity in critically ill patients. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 64: 141-145
105. Pasquel FJ, Spiegelman R, McCauley M, Smiley D, Umpierrez D, Johnson R, Rhee M, Gatcliffe C, Lin E, Umpierrez E, Peng L, Umpierrez GE 2010 Hyperglycemia during total parenteral nutrition: an important marker of poor outcome and mortality in hospitalized patients. Diabetes Care 33:739-741
106. Elia M, Ceriello A, Laube H, Sinclair AJ, Engfer M, Stratton RJ 2005 Enteral nutritional support and use of diabetes-specific formulas for patients with diabetes: a systematic review and meta analysis. Diabetes Care 28:2267-2279 (Pubitemid 41242484)
107. Frisch A, Chandra P, Smiley D, Peng L, Rizzo M, Gatcliffe C, Hudson M, Mendoza J, Johnson R, Lin E, Umpierrez GE 2010 Prevalence and clinical outcome of hyperglycemia in the perioperative period in noncardiac surgery. Diabetes Care 33:1783-1788
108. Noordzij PG, Boersma E, Schreiner F, Kertai MD, Feringa HH, Dunkelgrun M, Bax JJ, Klein J, Poldermans D 2007 Increased preoperative glucose levels are associated with perioperative mortality in patients undergoing noncardiac, nonvascular surgery. Eur J Endocrinol 156:137-142 (Pubitemid 46553914)
109. Ramos M, Khalpey Z, Lipsitz S, Steinberg J, Panizales MT, Zinner M, Rogers SO 2008 Relationship of perioperative hyperglycemia and postoperative infections in patients who undergo general and vascular surgery. Ann Surg 248:585-591
110. Sato H, Carvalho G, Sato T, Lattermann R, Matsukawa T, Schricker T 2010 The association of preoperative glycemic control, intraoperative insulin sensitivity, and outcomes after cardiac surgery. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:4338-4344
111. Dagogo-Jack S, Alberti KG 2002 Management of diabetes mellitus in surgical patients. Diabetes Spectrum 15:44-48
112. Hirsch IB, McGill JB 1990 Role of insulin in management of surgical patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 13:980-991 (Pubitemid 20260736)
113. Jacober SJ, Sowers JR 1999 An update on perioperative management of diabetes. Arch Intern Med 159:2405-2411 (Pubitemid 29526768)
114. DiNardo M, Donihi AC, Forte P, Gieraltowski L, Korytkowski M 2011 Standardized glycemic management improves peri-operative glycemic outcomes in same day surgery patients with diabetes. Endocr Pract 17:404-411
115. Smiley DD, Umpierrez GE 2006 Perioperative glucose control in the diabetic or nondiabetic patient. South Med J 99:580-589
116. Brenner WI, Lansky Z, Engelman RM, Stahl WM 1973 Hyperosomolar coma in surgical patients: an iatrogenic disease of increasing incidence. Ann Surg 178:651-654
117. Seki S 1986 Clinical features of hyperosmolar hyperglycemic non-ketotic diabetic coma associated with cardiac operations. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 91:867-873 (Pubitemid 16092988)
118. Walker M, Marshall SM, Alberti KG 1989 Clinical aspects of diabetic ketoacidosis. Diabetes Metab Rev 5:651-663
119. Mucha GT, Merkel S, Thomas W, Bantle JP 2004 Fasting and insulin glargine in individuals with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 27:1209-1210 (Pubitemid 38579794)
120. Xiao JZ, Ma L, Gao J, Yang ZJ, Xing XY, Zhao HC, Jiao JS, Li GW 2004 [Glucocorticoid-induced diabetes in severe acute respiratory syndrome: the impact of high dosage and duration of methylprednisolone therapy]. Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi 43:179-182
121. Clore JN, Thurby-Hay L 2009 Glucocorticoid-induced hyperglycemia. Endocr Pract 15:469-474
122. Felig P, Sherwin RS, SomanV, Wahren J, Hendler R, Sacca L, Eigler N, Goldberg D, Walesky M 1979 Hormonal interactions in the regulation of blood glucose. Recent Prog Horm Res 35:501-532 (Pubitemid 10244055)
123. Schade DS, Eaton RP 1980 The temporal relationship between endogenously secreted stress hormones and metabolic decompensation in diabetic man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 50:131-136 (Pubitemid 10203589)
124. Umpierrez GE, Kitabbhi AE 2004 ICU care for patients with diabetes. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes 11:75-81 (Pubitemid 44616230)
125. Hirsch IB, Paauw DS 1997 Diabetes management in special situations. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 26:631-645 (Pubitemid 27410894)
126. Fischer KF, Lees JA, Newman JH 1986 Hypoglycemia in hospitalized patients. Causes and outcomes. N Engl J Med 315:1245-1250 (Pubitemid 17049682)
127. American Diabetes Association Workgroup on Hypoglycemia 2005 Defining and Reporting Hypoglycemia in Diabetes: A report from the American Diabetes Association Workgroup on hypoglycemia 28:1245-1249
128. Cryer PE, Axelrod L, Grossman AB, Heller SR, Montori VM, Seaquist ER, Service FJ 2009 Evaluation and management of adult hypoglycemic disorders: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:709-728
129. Mitrakou A, Ryan C, Veneman T, Mokan M, Jenssen T, Kiss I, Durrant J, Cryer P, Gerich J 1991 Hierarchy of glycemic thresholds for counterregulatory hormone secretion, symptoms, and cerebral dysfunction. Am J Physiol 260:E67-E74
130. Wexler DJ, Meigs JB, Cagliero E, Nathan DM, Grant RW 2007 Prevalence of hyper- and hypoglycemia among inpatients with diabetes: a national survey of 44 U.S. hospitals. Diabetes Care 30: 367-369 (Pubitemid 46198347)
131. Smith WD, Winterstein AG, Johns T, Rosenberg E, Sauer BC 2005 Causes of hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia in adult inpatients. Am J Health Syst Pharm 62:714-719 (Pubitemid 40462840)
132. van der Crabben SN, Blümer RM, Stegenga ME, Ackermans MT, Endert E, Tanck MW, Serlie MJ, van der Poll T, Sauerwein HP 2009 Early endotoxemia increases peripheral and hepatic insulin sensitivity in healthy humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:463-468
133. Varghese P, Gleason V, Sorokin R, Senholzi C, Jabbour S, Gottlieb JE 2007 Hypoglycemia in hospitalized patients treated with antihyperglycemic agents. J Hosp Med 2:234-240 (Pubitemid 47377269)
134. Krinsley JS, Grover A 2007 Severe hypoglycemia in critically ill patients: risk factors and outcomes. Crit Care Med 35:2262-2267 (Pubitemid 47476221)
135. Kagansky N, Levy S, Rimon E, Cojocaru L, Fridman A, Ozer Z, Knobler H 2003 Hypoglycemia as a predictor of mortality in hospitalized elderly patients. Arch Intern Med 163:1825-1829 (Pubitemid 36960932)
136. Desouza CV, Bolli GB, Fonseca V 2010 Hypoglycemia, diabetes, and cardiovascular events. Diabetes Care 33:1389-1394
137. Turchin A, Matheny ME, Shubina M, Scanlon JV, Greenwood B, Pendergrass ML 2009 Hypoglycemia and clinical outcomes in patients with diabetes hospitalized in the general ward. Diabetes Care 32:1153-1157
138. Kosiborod M, Inzucchi SE, Krumholz HM, Masoudi FA, Goyal A, Xiao L, Jones PG, Fiske S, Spertus JA 2009 Glucose normalization and outcomes in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med 169:438-446
139. Vanhorebeek I, Gielen M, Boussemaere M, Wouters PJ, Grandas FG, Mesotten D, Van den Berghe G 2010 Glucose dysregulation and neurological injury biomarkers in critically ill children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:4669-4679
140. Goyal A, Mehta SR, Díaz R, Gerstein HC, Afzal R, Xavier D, Liu L, Pais P, Yusuf S 2009 Differential clinical outcomes associated with hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia in acute myocardial infarction. Circulation 120:2429-2437
141. Mellbin LG, Malmberg K, Waldenström A, Wedel H, Rydén L 2009 Prognostic implications of hypoglycaemic episodes during hospitalisation for myocardial infarction in patients with type 2 diabetes: a report from the Digami 2 Trial. Heart 95:721-727
142. Arabi YM, Tamim HM, Rishu AH 2009 Hypoglycemia with intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients: predisposing factors and association with mortality. Crit Care Med 37:2536-2544
143. Hermayer KL, Hushion TV, Arnold PC, Wojciechowski B 2008 Improving hyperglycemia in the hospital: outcomes of a nursing in-service to evaluate acceptance of a web-based insulin infusion calculator. J Diabetes Sci Technol 2:376-383
144. DiNardo M, Noschese M, Korytkowski M, Freeman S 2006 The medical emergency team and rapid response system: finding, treating, and preventing hypoglycemia. Jt Comm J Qual Patient Saf 32:591-595
145. Goldberg PA, Bozzo JE, Thomas PG, Mesmer MM, Sakharova OV, Radford MJ, Inzucchi SE 2006 "Glucometrics"-assessing the quality of inpatient glucose management. Diabetes Technol Ther 8:560-569 (Pubitemid 44946880)
146. Noschese M, Donihi AC, Koerbel G, Karslioglu E, Dinardo M, Curll M, Korytkowski MT 2008 Effect of a diabetes order set on glycaemic management and control in the hospital. Qual Saf Health Care 17:464-468
147. Korytkowski M, Dinardo M, Donihi AC, Bigi L, Devita M 2006 Evolution of a diabetes inpatient safety committee. Endocr Pract 12(Suppl 3):91-99 (Pubitemid 44963600)
148. Dinardo M, Donihi A, Devita M, Siminerio L, Rao H, Korytkowski M 2005 Anurse-directed protocol for recognition and treatment of hypoglycemia in hospitalized patients. Pract Diabetol 22:37-44
149. Anthony M 2007 Treatment of hypoglycemia in hospitalized adults: a descriptive study. Diabetes Educ 33:709-715
150. Garber AJ, Moghissi ES, Bransome Jr ED, Clark NG, Clement S, Cobin RH, Furnary AP, Hirsch IB, Levy P, Roberts R, Van Den Berghe G, Zamudio V 2004 American College of Endocrinology Position Statement on inpatient diabetes and metabolic control. Endocr Pract 10(Suppl 2):4-9
151. Umpierrez G, Maynard G 2006 Glycemic chaos (not glycemic control) still the rule for inpatient care: how do we stop the insanity? J Hosp Med 1:141-144
152. Bates DW, Leape LL, Cullen DJ, Laird N, Petersen LA, Teich JM, Burdick E, Hickey M, Kleefield S, Shea B, Vander Vliet M, Seger DL 1998 Effect of computerized physician order entry and a team intervention on prevention of serious medication errors. JAMA 280:1311-1316 (Pubitemid 28473716)
153. Lee J, Clay B, Zelazny Z, Maynard G 2008 Indication-based ordering: a new paradigm for glycemic control in hospitalized inpatients. J Diabetes Sci Technol 2:349-356
154. Schnipper JL, Ndumele CD, Liang CL, Pendergrass ML 2009 Effects of a subcutaneous insulin protocol, clinical education, and computerized order set on the quality of inpatient management of hyperglycemia: results of a clinical trial. J Hosp Med 4:16-27
155. Schnipper JL, Liang CL, Ndumele CD, Pendergrass ML 2010 Effects of a computerized order set on the inpatient management of hyperglycemia: a cluster-randomized controlled trial. Endocr Pract 16:209-218
156. Brown SA 1988 Effects of educational interventions in diabetes care: a meta-analysis of findings. Nurs Res 37:223-230
157. Seley J, Wallace M 2010 Meeting the challenge of inpatient diabetes education: an interdisciplinary approach. In: Weinger K, Carver CA, eds. Education your patient with diabetes. New York: Humana Press; 81-96
158. Hellman R 2006 Patient safety and inpatient glycemic control: translating concepts into action. Endocr Pract 12(Suppl 3):49-55 (Pubitemid 44963593)
159. Cook DM, Yuen KC, Biller BM, Kemp SF, Vance ML 2009 American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists medical guidelines for clinical practice for growth hormone use in growth hormone-deficient adults and transition patients-2009 update. Endocr Pract 15(Suppl 2):1-29
160. Funnell MM, Brown TL, Childs BP, Haas LB, Hosey GM, Jensen B, Maryniuk M, Peyrot M, Piette JD, Reader D, Siminerio LM, Weinger K, Weiss MA 2011 National standards for diabetes self-management education. Diabetes Care 34(Suppl 1):S89-S96
161. The Joint Commission 2011 Advanced certification in inpatient diabetes. http://www.jointcommission.org/certification/inpatient-diabetes.aspx.
162. Foss MC, Gouveia LM, Moysés Neto M, Paccola GM, Piccinato CE 1996 Effect of hemodialysis on peripheral glucose metabolism of patients with chronic renal failure. Nephron 73:48-53 (Pubitemid 26125522)