The role of impulsivity in the aetiology of drug dependence: Reward sensitivity versus automaticity

Psychopharmacology

Volumn 215, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 567-580

  Hogarth, Lee ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Addiction; Compulsion; Goal directed; Habit; Nicotine

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; BARRATT IMPULSIVITY SCALE; CIGARETTE SMOKING; CONTROLLED STUDY; DRUG DEPENDENCE; DRUG SEEKING BEHAVIOR; DRUG UTILIZATION; FEMALE; HABITUATION; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; IMPULSIVENESS; MALE; MULTIPLE CHOICE TEST; NAMED INVENTORIES, QUESTIONNAIRES AND RATING SCALES; NORMAL HUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REWARD; SMOKING HABIT; WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME; ADDICTION; ADOLESCENT; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; RISK FACTOR; SMOKING; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; BEHAVIOR, ADDICTIVE; FEMALE; HUMANS; IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR; MALE; REWARD; RISK FACTORS; SMOKING; TOBACCO USE DISORDER; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 80052324999     PISSN: 00333158     EISSN: 14322072     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2172-0     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. Ahmed SH (2010) Validation crisis in animal models of drug addiction: beyond non-disordered drug use toward drug addiction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 35: 172-184
2. Allen SS, Bade T, Hatsukami D, Center B (2008) Craving, withdrawal, and smoking urges on days immediately prior to smoking relapse. Nicotine Tob Res 10: 35-45
3. Anker JJ, Perry JL, Gliddon LA, Carroll ME (2009) Impulsivity predicts the escalation of cocaine self-administration in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 93: 343-348
4. Balleine BW, O'Doherty JP (2010) Human and rodent homologies in action control: corticostriatal determinants of goal-directed and habitual action. Neuropsychopharmacology 35: 48-69
5. Balleine BW, Garner C, Gonzalez F, Dickinson A (1995) Motivational control of heterogeneous instrumental chains. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 21: 203-217
6. Baum WM (1974) Two types of deviation from matching law-bias and undermatching. J Exp Anal Behav 22: 231-242
7. Belin D, Mar AC, Dalley JW, Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (2008) High impulsivity predicts the switch to compulsive cocaine-taking. Science 320: 1352-1355 (Pubitemid 351929473)
8. Belin D, Jonkman S, Dickinson A, Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (2009) Parallel and interactive learning processes within the basal ganglia: Relevance for the understanding of addiction. Behav Brain Res 199: 89-102
9. Benko A, Lazary J, Molnar E, Gonda X, Tothfalusi L, Pap D, Mirnics Z, Kurimay T, Chase D, Juhasz G, Anderson IM, Deakin JFW, Bagdy G (2010) Significant association between the C(-1019)G functional polymorphism of the HTR1A gene and impulsivity. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 153B: 592-599
10. Bickel WK, Marsch LA, Carroll ME (2000) Deconstructing relative reinforcing efficacy and situating the measures of pharmacological reinforcement with behavioral economics: a theoretical proposal. Psychopharmacology 153: 44-56 (Pubitemid 32127903)
11. Biederman J, Wilens T, Mick E, Faraone SV, Weber W, Curtis S, Thornell A, Pfister K, Jetton JG, Soriano J (1997) Is ADHD a risk factor for psychoactive substance use disorders? Findings from a four-year prospective follow-up study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 36: 21-29 (Pubitemid 27024224)
12. Bisaga A, PadillaM, Garawi F, SullivanMA, HaneyM(2007) Effects of alternative reinforcer and craving on the choice to smoke cigarettes in the laboratory. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 22: 41-47 (Pubitemid 46178777)
13. Brauer LH, Hatsukami D, Hanson K, Shiffman S (1996) Smoking topography in tobacco chippers and dependent smokers. Addict Behav 21: 233-238 (Pubitemid 26106572)
14. Breitling LP, Dahmen N, Mittelstrass K, Illig T, Rujescu D, Raum E, Winterer G, Brenner H (2009) Smoking cessation and variations in nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits alpha-5, alpha-3, and beta-4 genes. Biol Psychiatry 65: 691-695
15. Bühler M, Vollstädt-Klein S, Kobiella A, Budde H, Reed LJ, Braus DF, Büchel C, Smolka MN (2010) Nicotine dependence is characterized by disordered reward processing in a network driving motivation. Biol Psychiatry 67: 745-752
16. Campbell JM, Oei TP (2010) A cognitive model for the intergenerational transference of alcohol use behavior. Addict Behav 35: 73-83
17. Cappelleri JC, Bushmakin AG, Baker CL, Merikle E, Olufade AO, Gilbert DG (2007) Multivariate framework of the brief questionnaire of smoking urges. Drug Alcohol Depend 90: 234-242 (Pubitemid 47284718)
18. Carter BL, Tiffany ST (1999) Meta-analysis of cue-reactivity in addiction research. Addiction 94: 327-340 (Pubitemid 29137413)
19. Chase HW, Hogarth L (2011) Impulsivity and symptoms of nicotine dependence in a young adult population (under review)
20. Colwill RM, Rescorla RA (1990) Effects of reinforcer devaluation on discriminative control of instrumental behavior. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 16: 40-47
21. Colwill RM, Rescorla RA (1988) Associations between the discriminative stimulus and the reinforcer in instrumental learning. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 14: 155-164
22. Cools R, Blackwell A, Clark L, Menzies L, Cox S, Robbins TW (2005) Tryptophan depletion disrupts the motivational guidance of goal-directed behavior as a function of trait impulsivity. Neuropsychopharmacology 30: 1362-1373 (Pubitemid 40848090)
23. Corbit LH, Balleine BW (2003) Instrumental and Pavlovian incentive processes have dissociable effects on components of a heterogeneous instrumental chain. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 29: 99-106 (Pubitemid 37177376)
24. Corbit LH, Janak PH, Balleine BW (2007) General and outcomespecific forms of Pavlovian-instrumental transfer: the effect of shifts in motivational state and inactivation of the ventral tegmental area. Eur J Neurosci 26: 3141-3149 (Pubitemid 350135179)
25. Cox LS, Tiffany ST, Christen AG (2001) Evaluation of the brief questionnaire of smoking urges (QSU-brief) in the laboratory and clinical settings. Nicotine Tob Res 3: 7-16 (Pubitemid 32611534)
26. Dalley JW, Everitt BJ (2009) Dopamine receptors in the learning, memory and drug reward circuitry. Semin Cell Dev Biol 20: 403-410
27. Dallery J, Locey ML (2005) Effects of acute and chronic nicotine on impulsive choice in rats. Behav Pharmacol 16: 15-23 (Pubitemid 40354362)
28. Dallery J, Raiff BR (2007) Delay discounting predicts cigarette smoking in a laboratory model of abstinence reinforcement. Psychopharmacology 190: 485-496 (Pubitemid 46204466)
29. Dalley JW, Fryer TD, Brichard L, Robinson ESJ, Theobald DEH, Laane K, Pena Y, Murphy ER, Shah Y, Probst K, Abakumova I, Aigbirhio FI, Richards HK, Hong Y, Baron J-C, Everitt BJ, Robbins TW (2007) Nucleus accumbens D2/3 receptors predict trait impulsivity and cocaine reinforcement. Science 315: 1267-1270 (Pubitemid 46364262)
30. Daw ND, Niv Y, Dayan P (2005) Uncertainty-based competition between prefrontal and dorsolateral striatal systems for behavioral control. Nat Neurosci 8: 1704-1711 (Pubitemid 41683198)
31. De Wit H (2009) Impulsivity as a determinant and consequence of drug use: a review of underlying processes. Addict Biol 14: 22-31
32. de Wit S, Dickinson A (2009) Associative theories of goal-directed behaviour: a case for animal-human translational models. Psychol Res 73: 463-476
33. de Wit H, Flory JD, Acheson A, McCloskey M, Manuck SB (2007) IQ and nonplanning impulsivity are independently associated with delay discounting in middle-aged adults. Pers Individ Differ 42: 111-121 (Pubitemid 44725606)
34. Debner JA, Jacoby LL (1994) Unconscious perception: attention, awareness and control. J Exp Psychol LearnMem Cogn 20: 304-317
35. Deroche-Gamonet V, Belin D, Piazza PV (2004) Evidence for addiction-like behavior in the rat. Science 305: 1014-1017 (Pubitemid 39071778)
36. Dickinson A, Balleine B (2010) The cognitive/motivational interface. In: Kringelbach ML, Berridge KC (eds) Pleasures of the brain. The neural basis of taste, smell and other rewards. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 74-84
37. Dickinson A, Balleine B, Watt A, Gonzalez F, Boakes RA (1995) Motivational control after extended instrumental training. Anim Learn Behav 23: 197-206
38. Dickinson A, Wood N, Smith JW (2002) Alcohol seeking by rats: action or habit? Q J Exp Psychol B Comp Physiol Psychol 55: 331-348
39. Diergaarde L, Pattij T, Poortvliet I, Hogenboom F, de Vries W, Schoffelmeer ANM, De Vries TJ (2008) Impulsive choice and impulsive action predict vulnerability to distinct stages of nicotine seeking in rats. Biol Psychiatry 63: 301-308
40. Dom G, Sabbe B, Hulstijn W, Van Den Brink W (2005) Substance use disorders and the orbitofrontal cortex-systematic review of behavioural decision-making and neuroimaging studies. Br J Psychiatry 187: 209-220 (Pubitemid 41306101)
41. Doran N, Spring B, McChargue D, Pergadia M, Richmond M (2004) Impulsivity and smoking relapse. Nicotine Tob Res 6: 641-647 (Pubitemid 39248150)
42. Draper NR, John JA (1981) Influential observations and outliers in regression. Technometrics 23: 21-26
43. Drobes DJ, Tiffany ST (1997) Induction of smoking urge through imaginal and in vivo procedures: physiological and self-report manifestations. J Abnorm Psychol 106: 15-25 (Pubitemid 27063188)
44. DSM-IV (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th edn). American Psychiatric Association, American Psychiatric Association
45. Economidou D, Pelloux Y, Robbins TW, Dalley JW, Everitt BJ (2009) High impulsivity predicts relapse to cocaine-seeking after punishment-induced abstinence. Biol Psychiatry 65: 851-856
46. Ersche KD, Turton AJ, Pradhan S, Bullmore ET, Robbins TW (2010) Drug addiction endophenotypes: impulsive versus sensationseeking personality traits. Biological Psychiatry 68(8): 770-773
47. BJ BD, Economidou D, Pelloux Y, Dalley JW, Robbins TW (2008) Neural mechanisms underlying the vulnerability to develop compulsive drug-seeking habits and addiction. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363: 3125-3135
48. Fischman MW, Foltin RW (1992) Self-administration of cocaine by humans-a laboratory perspective. Ciba Found Symp 166: 165-180
49. Flory JD, Manuck SB (2009) Impulsiveness and cigarette smoking. Psychosom Med 71: 431-437
50. Furberg H, Kim Y, Dackor J, Boerwinkle E, Franceschini N, Ardissino D, Bernardinelli L, Mannucci PM, Mauri F, Merlini PA, Absher D, Assimes TL, Fortmann SP, Iribarren C, Knowles JW, Quertermous T, Ferrucci L, Tanaka T, Bis JC, Furberg CD, Haritunians T, McKnight B, Psaty BM, Taylor KD, Thacker EL, Almgren P, Groop L, Ladenvall C, Boehnke M, Jackson AU, Mohlke KL, Stringham HM, Tuomilehto J, Benjamin EJ, Hwang SJ, Levy D, Preis SR, Vasan RS, Duan J, Gejman PV, Levinson DF, Sanders AR, Shi JX, Lips EH, McKay JD, Agudo A, Barzan L, Bencko V, Benhamou S, Castellsague X, Canova C, Conway DI, Fabianova E, Foretova L, Janout V, Healy CM, Holcatova I, Kjaerheim K, Lagiou P, Lissowska J, Lowry R, Macfarlane TV, Mates D, Richiardi L, Rudnai P, Szeszenia-Dabrowska N, Zaridze D, Znaor A, Lathrop M, Brennan P, Bandinelli S, Frayling TM, Guralnik JM, Milaneschi Y, Perry JRB, Altshuler D, Elosua R, Kathiresan S, Lucas G, Melander O, O'Donnell CJ, Salomaa V, Schwartz SM, Voight BF, Penninx BW, Smit JH, Vogelzangs N, Boomsma DI, de Geus EJC, Vink JM, Willemsen G, Chanock SJ, Gu FY, Hankinson SE, Hunter DJ, Hofman A, Tiemeier H, Uitterlinden AG, van Duijn CM, Walter S, Chasman DI, Everett BM, Pare G, Ridker PM, Li MD, Maes HH, Audrain-McGovern J, Posthuma D, Thornton LM, Lerman C, Kaprio J, Rose JE, Ioannidis JPA, Kraft P, Lin DY, Sullivan PF (2010) Genome-wide meta-analyses identify multiple loci associated with smoking behavior. Nat Genet 42: 441-U134
51. Garavan H, Hester R (2007) The role of cognitive control in cocaine dependence. Neuropsychol Rev 17: 337-345 (Pubitemid 47498177)
52. Glasner SV, Overmier JB, Balleine BW (2005) The role of Pavlovian cues in alcohol seeking in dependent and nondependent rats. J Stud Alcohol 66: 53-61 (Pubitemid 40381601)
53. Goldstein RZ, Craig AD, Bechara A, Garavan H, Childress AR, Paulus MP, Volkow ND (2009) The neurocircuitry of impaired insight in drug addiction. Trends Cogn Sci 13: 372-380
54. Hammond D, Fong GT, McDonald PW, Cameron R, Brown KS (2003) Impact of the graphic Canadian warning labels on adult smoking behaviour. Tob Control 12: 391-395 (Pubitemid 39452040)
55. Haney M (2009) Self-administration of cocaine, cannabis and heroin in the human laboratory: benefits and pitfalls. Addict Biol 14: 9-21
56. Hart CL, Ward AS, Haney M, Foltin RW, Fischman MW (2001) Methamphetamine self-administration by humans. Psychopharmacology 157: 75-81 (Pubitemid 32758962)
57. Harvey DM, Yasar S, Heishman SJ, Panlilio LV, Henningfield JE, Goldberg SR (2004) Nicotine serves as an effective reinforcer of intravenous drug-taking behavior in human cigarette smokers. Psychopharmacology 175: 134-142 (Pubitemid 39222342)
58. Heil SH, Johnson MW, Higgins ST, Bickel WK (2006) Delay discounting in currently using and currently abstinent cocainedependent outpatients and non-drug-using matched controls. Addict Behav 31: 1290-1294
59. Herd N, Borland R, Hyland A (2009) Predictors of smoking relapse by duration of abstinence: findings from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey. Addiction 104: 2088-2099
60. Herrnstein RJ (1961) Relative and absolute strength of response as a function of frequency of reinforcement. J Exp Anal Behav 4: 267-272
61. Heyman GM (2003) Consumption dependent changes in reward value: a framework for understanding addiction. Pergamon, Pergamon
62. Hogarth L, Chase HW (2011) Parallel goal-directed and habitual control of human drug-seeking: implications for dependence vulnerability. J Exp Psychol: Anim Behav Processes (in press)
63. Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Duka T (2010) The associative basis of cue elicited drug taking in humans. Psychopharmacology 208: 337-351
64. Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Wright A, Kouvaraki M, Duka T (2007) The role of drug expectancy in the control of human drug seeking. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 33: 484-496 (Pubitemid 350100770)
65. Holland PC (2004) Relations between Pavlovian-instrumental transfer and reinforcer devaluation. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 30: 258-258
66. Holmes NM, Marchand AR, Coutureau E (2010) Pavlovian to instrumental transfer: a neurobehavioural perspective. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 34: 1277-1295
67. Hull CL (1943) Principles of behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts, Appleton-Century-Crofts
68. Hursh SR, Silberberg A (2008) Economic demand and essential value. Psychol Rev 115: 186-198
69. Hutcheson DM, Everitt BJ, Robbins TW, Dickinson A (2001) The role of withdrawal in heroin addiction: enhances reward or promotes avoidance? Nat Neurosci 4: 943-947 (Pubitemid 32801599)
70. Jacoby LL (1991) A process dissociation framework: separating automatic from intentional uses of memory. J Mem Lang 30: 513-541
71. Jedynak JP, Uslaner JM, Esteban JA, Robinson TE (2007) Methamphetamine-induced structural plasticity in the dorsal striatum. Eur J Neurosci 25: 847-853
72. Jose PE (2008) ModGraph-I: A programme to compute cell means for the graphical display of moderational analyses: the internet version. Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington
73. Killcross S, Coutureau E (2003) Coordination of actions and habits in the medial prefrontal cortex of rats. Cereb Cortex 13: 400-408 (Pubitemid 36373685)
74. Killen JD, Fortmann SP (1997) Craving is associated with smoking relapse: findings from three prospective studies. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 5: 137-142 (Pubitemid 27239815)
75. Kosaki Y, Dickinson A (2010) Choice and contingency in the development of behavioral autonomy during instrumental conditioning. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 36: 334-342
76. Kühn S, Schubert F, Gallinat J (2010) Reduced thickness of medial orbitofrontal cortex in smokers. Biol Psychiatry 68: 1061-1065
77. Lamb RJ, Preston KL, Schindler CW, Meisch RA, Davis F, Katz JL, Henningfield JE, Goldberg SR (1991) The reinforcing and subjective effects of morphine in post-addicts: a dose-response study. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 259: 1165-1173
78. Le Foll B, Chefer SI, Kimes AS, Shumway D, Stein EA, Mukhin AG, Goldberg SR (2009) Baseline expression of alpha 4 beta 2*nicotinic acetylcholine receptors predicts motivation to selfadminister nicotine. Biol Psychiatry 65: 714-716
79. Lee B, London ED, Poldrack RA, Farahi J, Nacca A, Monterosso JR, Mumford JA, Bokarius AV, Dahlbom M, Mukherjee J, Bilder RM, Brody AL, Mandelkern MA (2009) Striatal dopamine D2/ D3 Rreceptor availability is reduced in methamphetamine dependence and is linked to impulsivity. J Neurosci 29: 14734-14740
80. Leeman R, O'Malley S, White M, McKee S (2010) Nicotine and food deprivation decrease the ability to resist smoking. Psychopharmacology 212: 25-32
81. Leventhal AM, Schmitz JM (2006) The role of drug use outcome expectancies in substance abuse risk: an interactional-transformational model. Addict Behav 31: 2038-2062 (Pubitemid 44548187)
82. Lieberman DA, Sunnucks WL, Kirk JD (1998) Reinforcement without awareness: I. Voice level. Q J Exp Psychol B 51: 301-316 (Pubitemid 128457725)
83. London ED, Ernst M, Grant S, Bonson K, Weinstein A (2000) Orbitofrontal cortex and human drug abuse: functional imaging. Cereb Cortex 10: 334-342 (Pubitemid 30159300)
84. Lovibond PF, Shanks DR (2002) The role of awareness in Pavlovian conditioning: empirical evidence and theoretical implications. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 28: 3-26 (Pubitemid 44220054)
85. MacKillop J, Miranda R, Monti PM, Ray LA, Murphy JG, Rohsenow DJ, McGeary JE, Swift RM, Tidey JW, Gwaltney CJ (2010) Alcohol demand, delayed reward discounting, and craving in relation to drinking and alcohol use disorders. J Abnorm Psychol 119: 106-114
86. Marusich JA, Bardo MT (2009) Differences in impulsivity on a delay-discounting task predict self-administration of a low unit dose of methylphenidate in rats. Behav Pharmacol 20: 447-454
87. Matsuo K, Nicoletti M, Nemoto K, Hatch JP, Peluso MAM, Nery FG, Soares JC (2009) A voxel-based morphometry study of frontal gray matter correlates of impulsivity. Hum Brain Mapp 30: 1188-1195
88. Maude-Griffin PM, Tiffany ST (1996) Production of smoking urges through imagery: the impact of affect and smoking abstinence. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 4: 198-208 (Pubitemid 26180718)
89. McKee SA, Harrison ELR, O'Malley SS, Krishnan-Sarin S, Shi J, Tetrault JM, Picciotto MR, Petrakis IL, Estevez N, Balchunas E (2009) Varenicline reduces alcohol self-administration in heavydrinking smokers. Biol Psychiatry 66: 185-190
90. Miles FJ, Everitt BJ, Dickinson A (2003) Oral cocaine seeking by rats: action or habit? Behav Neurosci 117: 927-938 (Pubitemid 37243775)
91. Moeller FG, Dougherty DM, Barratt ES, Schmitz JM, Swann AC, Grabowski J (2001) The impact of impulsivity on cocaine use and retention in treatment. J Subst Abuse Treat 21: 193-198 (Pubitemid 34037109)
92. Moeller SJ, Maloney T, Parvaz MA, Dunning JP, Alia-Klein N, Woicik PA, Hajcak G, Telang F, Wang GJ, Volkow ND, Goldstein RZ (2009) Enhanced choice for viewing cocaine pictures in cocaine addiction. Biol Psychiatry 66: 169-176
93. Mueller ET, Landes RD, Kowal BP, Yi R, Stitzer ML, Burnett CA, Bickel WK (2009) Delay of smoking gratification as a laboratory model of relapse: effects of incentives for not smoking, and relationship with measures of executive function. Behav Pharmacol 20: 461-473
94. Nader MA, Morgan D, Gage HD, Nader SH, Calhoun TL, Buchheimer N, Ehrenkaufer R, Mach RH (2006) PET imaging of dopamine D2 receptors during chronic cocaine selfadministration in monkeys. Nat Neurosci 9: 1050-1056 (Pubitemid 44264918)
95. Nelson A, Killcross S (2006) Amphetamine exposure enhances habit formation. J Neurosci 26: 3805-3812
96. Nemeth-Coslett R, Griffiths RR (1984a) Determinants of puff duration in cigarette smokers: I. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 20: 965-971 (Pubitemid 14089148)
97. Nemeth-Coslett R, Griffiths RR (1984b) Determinants of puff duration in cigarette smokers: II. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 21: 903-912 (Pubitemid 15150743)
98. Olmstead MC, Lafond MV, Everitt BJ, Dickinson A (2001) Cocaine seeking by rats is a goal-directed action. Behav Neurosci 115: 394-402 (Pubitemid 32378168)
99. Ostlund SB, Balleine BW (2008) The disunity of Pavlovian and instrumental values. Behav Brain Sci 31: 456
100. Ostlund SB, Winterbauer NE, Balleine BW (2009) Evidence of action sequence chunking in goal-directed instrumental conditioning and its dependence on the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 29: 8280-8287
101. Panlilio LV, Yasar S, Nemeth-Coslett R, Katz JL, Henningfield JE, Solinas M, Heishman SJ, Schindler CW, Goldberg SR (2005) Human cocaine-seeking behavior and its control by drug-associated stimuli in the laboratory. Neuropsychopharmacology 30: 433-443 (Pubitemid 40129495)
102. Patton JH, Stanford MS, Barratt ES (1995) Factor structure of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale. J Clin Psychol 51: 768-774 (Pubitemid 26021724)
103. Pelloux Y, Everitt BJ, Dickinson A (2007) Compulsive drug seeking by rats under punishment: effects of drug taking history. Psychopharmacology 194: 127-137 (Pubitemid 47282729)
104. Perkins KA, Epstein LH, Grobe J, Fonte C (1994) Tobacco abstinence, smoking cues, and the reinforcing value of smoking. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 47: 107-112
105. Perry JL, Carrol ME (2008) The role of impulsive behavior in drug abuse. Psychopharmacology 200: 1-26
106. Perry JL, Larson EB, German JP, Madden GJ, Carroll ME (2005) Impulsivity (delay discounting) as a predictor of acquisition of IV cocaine self-administration in female rats. Psychopharmacology 178: 193-201 (Pubitemid 40379214)
107. Perry JL, Nelson SE, Carroll ME (2008) Impulsive choice as a predictor of acquisition of IV cocaine self-administration and reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior in male and female rats. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 16: 165-177 (Pubitemid 351680709)
108. Poulos CX, Le AD, Parker JL (1995) Impulsivity predicts individual susceptibility to high levels of alcohol self-administration. Behav Pharmacol 6: 810-814
109. Ray R, Jepson C, Patterson F, Strasser A, Rukstalis M, Perkins K, Lynch KG, O'Malley S, Berrettini WH, Lerman C (2006) Association of OPRM1 A118G variant with the relative reinforcing value of nicotine. Psychopharmacology 188: 355-363 (Pubitemid 44387463)
110. Rescorla RA (1994) Transfer of instrumental control mediated by a devalued outcome. Anim Learn Behav 22: 27-33 (Pubitemid 24054216)
111. Rescorla RA, Solomon RL (1967) Two-process learning theory: relationships between Pavlovian conditioning and instrumental learning. Psychol Rev 74: 151-182
112. Robinson TE, Berridge KC (1993) The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of drug addiction. Brain Res Rev 18: 247-291 (Pubitemid 23219500)
113. Rose JE (2006) Nicotine and nonnicotine factors in cigarette addiction. Psychopharmacology 184: 274-285 (Pubitemid 43255844)
114. Scherrer JF, Grant JD, Duncan AE, Sartor CE, Haber JR, Jacob T, Bucholz KK (2009) Subjective effects to cannabis are associated with use, abuse and dependence after adjusting for genetic and environmental influences. Drug Alcohol Depend 105: 76-82
115. Schiffer B, MullerBW, ScherbaumN, Forsting M, Wiltfang J, LeygrafN, Gizewski ER (2010) Impulsivity-related brain volume deficits in schizophrenia-addiction comorbidity. Brain 133: 3093-3103
116. Schmitz JM, Mooney ME, Green CE, Lane SD, Steinberg JL, Swann AC, Moeller FG (2009) Baseline neurocognitive profiles differentiate abstainers and non-abstainers in a cocaine clinical trial. J Addict Dis 28: 250-257
117. Seth AK, Dienes Z, Cleeremans A, Overgaard M, Pessoa L (2008) Measuring consciousness: relating behavioural and neurophysiological approaches. Trends Cogn Sci 12: 314-321
118. Setlow B, Mendez IA, Mitchell MR, Simon NW (2009) Effects of chronic administration of drugs of abuse on impulsive choice (delay discounting) in animal models. Behav Pharmacol 20: 380-389. doi: 10.1097/FBP.0b013e3283305eb4
119. Shanks DR, St. John MF (1994) Characteristics of dissociable human learning systems. Behav Brain Sci 17: 367-447 (Pubitemid 24976825)
120. Sherva R, Wilhelmsen K, Pomerleau CS, Chasse SA, Rice JP, Snedecor SM, Bierut LJ, Neuman RJ, Pomerleau OF (2008) Association of a single nucleotide polymorphism in neuronal acetylcholine receptor subunit alpha 5 (CHRNA5) with smoking status and with 'pleasurable buzz' during early experimentation with smoking. Addiction 103: 1544-1552
121. Silverman K, Kirby KC, Griffiths RR (1994) Modulation of drug reinforcement by behavioral requirements following drug ingestion. Psychopharmacology 114: 243-247 (Pubitemid 24152113)
122. Spiga R, Maxwell RS, Meisch RA, Grabowski J (2005) Human methadone self-administration and the generalized matching law. Psychol Rec 55: 525-538 (Pubitemid 41651028)
123. Staddon JER (1992) Rationality, melioration and law-of-effect models of choice. Psychol Sci (Wiley-Blackwell) 3: 136-141
124. Stanford MS, Mathias CW, Dougherty DM, Lake SL, Anderson NE, Patton JH (2009) Fifty years of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale: an update and review. Pers Individ Differ 47: 385-395
125. Tarter RE, Kirisci L, Habeych M, Reynolds M, Vanyukov M (2004) Neurobehavior disinhibition in childhood predisposes boys to substance use disorder by young adulthood: direct and mediated etiologic pathways. Drug Alcohol Depend 73: 121-132 (Pubitemid 38068348)
126. Thorndike EL (1911) Animal intelligence: experimental studies. Macmillan, Macmillan
127. Tiffany ST (1990) A cognitive model of drug urges and drug-use behaviour: role of automatic and nonautomatic processes. Psychol Rev 97: 147-168
128. Tiffany ST, Cox LS, Elash CA (2000) Effects of transdermal nicotine patches on abstinence-induced and cue-elicited craving in cigarette smokers. J Consult Clin Psychol 68: 233-240
129. Tiffany ST, Warthen MW, Goedeker KC (2007) The functional significance of craving in nicotine dependence. In: Bevins RA, Caggiuls AR (eds) 55th Annual Nebraska symposium on motivation-motivational impact of nicotine and its role in tobacco use, Lincoln, NE, pp 171-197
130. Tricomi E, Balleine BW, O'Doherty JP (2009) A specific role for posterior dorsolateral striatum in human habit learning. Eur J Neurosci 29: 2225-2232
131. Vanderschuren LJMJ, Everitt BJ (2004) Drug seeking becomes compulsive after prolonged cocaine self-administration. Science 305: 1017-1019 (Pubitemid 39071779)
132. Verdejo-García A, Lawrence AJ, Clark L (2008) Impulsivity as a vulnerability marker for substance-use disorders: review of findings from high-risk research, problem gamblers and genetic association studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 32: 777-810
133. Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Fowler JS, Logan J, Gatley SJ, Gifford A, Hitzemann R, Ding Y-S, Pappas N (1999) Prediction of reinforcing responses to psychostimulants in humans by brain dopamine D2 receptor levels. Am J Psychiatry 156: 1440-1443 (Pubitemid 29416545)
134. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Thanos P, Logan J, Gatley SJ, Gifford A, Ding YS, Wong C, Pappas N (2002) Brain DA D2 receptors predict reinforcing effects of stimulants in humans: replication study. Synapse 46: 79-82
135. Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, Baler R, Telang F (2009) Imaging dopamine's role in drug abuse and addiction. Neuropharmacology 56: 3-8
136. Walsh SL, Donny EC, Nuzzo PA, Umbricht A, Bigelow GE (2010) Cocaine abuse versus cocaine dependence: cocaine selfadministration and pharmacodynamic response in the human laboratory. Drug Alcohol Depend 106: 28-37
137. Waters AJ, Shiffman S, Sayette MA, Paty JA, Gwaltney CJ, Balabanis MH (2004) Cue-provoked craving and nicotine replacement therapy in smoking cessation. J Consult Clin Psychol 72: 1136-1143 (Pubitemid 39658546)
138. Willner P, Hardman S, Eaton G (1995) Subjective and behavioral evaluation of cigarette cravings. Psychopharmacology 118: 171-177
139. Winstanley CA (2007) The orbitofrontal cortex, impulsivity, and addiction-Probing orbitofrontal dysfunction at the neural, neurochemical, and molecular level Linking Affect to Action: Critical Contributions of the Orbitofrontal Cortex (Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences). Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, pp 639-655
140. Zapata A, Minney VL, Shippenberg TS (2010) Shift from goaldirected to habitual cocaine seeking after prolonged experience in rats. J Neurosci 30: 15457-15463