Review of virtual environment studies on social and group phenomena

Small Group Research

Volumn 42, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 405-457

  Sivunen, Anu ^a   Hakonen, Marko ^a  

^a AALTO UNIVERSITY   (Finland)

Author keywords

computer mediated communication; virtual environment; virtual group; virtual world

Indexed keywords

EID: 79960045703     PISSN: 10464964     EISSN: 15528278     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1046496410388946     Document Type: Review

References (88)

1. Antonijevic, S. (2008). From text to gesture online: A microethnographic analysis of nonverbal communication in the Second Life virtual environment. Information, Communication & Society, 11, 221-238. doi:10.1080/13691180801937290.
2. Ashforth, B.E., & Mael, F.A. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14, 20-39.
3. Axelsson, A.-S., Abelin, A., & Scroeder, R. (2003). Anyone speak Spanish? New Media & Society, 5, 475-498. doi:10.1177/146144480354002.
4. Axelsson, A.-S., Abelin, Å., Heldal, I., Schroeder, R., & Wideström, J. (2001). Cubes in the cube: A comparison of a puzzle-solving task in a virtual and a real environment. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 4, 279-286. doi:10.1089/109493101300117956.
5. Axtell, C.M., Fleck, S.J., & Turner, N. (2004). Virtual teams: Collaborating across distance. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 205-248). Chichester, UK: John Wiley.
6. Bailenson, J.N., Beall, A.C., & Blascovich, J. (2002). Gaze and task performance in shared virtual environments. Journal of Visualization and Computer Animation, 13, 313-320. doi:10.1002/vis.297.
7. Bailenson, J.N., Beall, A.C., Loomis, J., Blascovich, J., & Turk, M. (2005). Transformed social interaction, augmented gaze, and social influence in immersive virtual environments. Human Communication Research, 31, 511-537. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2005.tb00881.x.
8. Bailenson, J.N., Blascovich, J., Beall, A.C., & Loomis, J.M. (2003). Interpersonal distance in immersive virtual environments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 819-833. doi:10.1177/0146167203029007002.
9. Bailenson, J.N., Blascovich, J., & Guadagno, R.E. (2008). Self-representations in immersive virtual environments. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38, 2673-2690. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00409.x.
10. Bailenson, J.N., & Yee, N. (2005). Digital chameleons: Automatic assimilation of nonverbal gestures in immersive virtual environments. Psychological Science, 16, 814-819. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01619.x.
11. Bailenson, J.N., & Yee, N. (2006). A longitudinal study of task performance, head movements, subjective report, simulator sickness, and transformed social interaction in collaborative virtual environments. Presence, 15, 699-716. doi:10.1162/ pres.15.6.699.
12. Bailenson, J.N., Yee, N., Merget, D., & Schroeder, R. (2006). The effect of behavioral realism and form realism of real-time avatar faces on verbal disclosure, nonverbal disclosure, emotion recognition, and copresence in dyadic interaction. Presence, 15, 359-372. doi:10.1162/pres.15.4.359.
13. Bente, G., Rüggenberg, S., Krämer, N.C., & Eschenburg, F. (2008). Avatar-mediated networking: Increasing social presence and interpersonal trust in net-based collaborations. Human Communication Research, 34, 287-318. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2008.00322.x.
14. Blascovich, J., Loomis, J.M., Beall, A.C., Swinth, K.R., Hoyt, C.L., & Bailenson, J.N. (2002). Immersive virtual environment technology as a methodological tool for social psychology. Psychological Inquiry, 13, 103-124. doi:10.1207/ S15327965PLI1302_01.
15. Bond, M.H. (1986). Lifting one of the last bamboo curtains: review of the psychology of Chinese people. Hong Kong, People's Republic of China Oxford University Press.
16. Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Loss, sadness, and depression. New York, NY: Basic Books.
17. Chidambaram, L. (1996). Relational development in computer supported groups. MIS Quarterly, 20, 143-165.
18. Daft, R.L., & Lengel, R.H. (1984). Information richness: A new approach to managerial information processing and organization design. In L. L. Cummings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behaviour (Vol. 6, pp. 191-234). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
19. Denzin, N.K., & Lincoln, Y.S. (1994). Introduction: Entering the field of qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 1-17). London: SAGE.
20. Diehl, W.C., & Prins, E. (2008). Unintended outcomes in Second Life: Intercultural literacy and cultural identity in a virtual world. Language & Intercultural Communication, 8, 101-118. doi:10.1080/14708470802139619.
21. Dotsch, R., & Wigboldus, D.H.J. (2008). Virtual prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1194-1198. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.03.003.
22. Engestrom, Y. (2001). Expansive learning at work: Toward an activity theory reconceptualization. Journal of Education at Work, 14, 133-156. doi:10.1080/13639080020028747.
23. Feldon, D.F., & Kafai, Y.B. (2008). Mixed methods for mixed reality: Understanding users' avatar activities in virtual worlds. Educational Technology Research and Development, 56, 575-593. doi:10.1007/s11423-007-9081-2.
24. Fiedler, M. (2009). Cooperation in Virtual Worlds. Schmalenbach Business Review, 61, 173-194.
25. Fiedler, M., & Haruvy, E. (2009). The lab versus the virtual lab and virtual field- An experimental investigation of trust games with communication. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 72, 716-724. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2009.07.013.
26. Fleiss, J.L. (1971). Measuring nominal scale agreement among many raters. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 378-382.
27. Fox, J., Arena, D., & Bailenson, J.N. (2009). Virtual reality: A survival guide for the social scientist. Journal of Media Psychology, 21, 95-113. doi:10.1027/1864-1105.21.3.95.
28. Fox, J., & Bailenson, J.N. (2009). Virtual virgins and vamps: The effects of exposure to female characters' sexualized appearance and gaze in an immersive virtual environment. Sex Roles, 61, 147-157. doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9599-3.
29. Friedman, D., Karniel, Y., & Dinur, A.L. (2009). Comparing group discussion in virtual and physical environments. Presence, 18, 286-293. doi:10.1162/pres.18.4.286.
30. Gillath, O., McCall, C., Shaver, P., & Blascovich, J. (2008). What can virtual reality teach us about prosocial tendencies in real and virtual environments? Media Psychology, 11, 259-282. doi:10.1080/15213260801906489.
31. Gong, L., & Nass, C. (2007). When a talking-face computer agent is half-human and half-humanoid: Human identity and consistency preference. Human Communication Research, 33, 163-193. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00295.x.
32. Groom, C.J., Sherman, J.W., & Conrey, F.R. (2002). What immersive virtual environment technology can offer to social cognition. Psychological Inquiry, 13, 125-145.
33. Guadagno, R.E., Blascovich, J., Bailenson, J.N., & McCall, C. (2007). Virtual humans and persuasion: The effects of agency and behavioral realism. Media Psychology, 10, 1-22. doi:10.1080/15213260701300865.
34. Hakonen, M., & Koivisto, S. (2008). Antecedents of identity in virtual teams. Nordic Organization Studies, 10, 54-73.
35. Hakonen, M., & Lipponen, J. (2007). Antecedents and consequences of identification with virtual teams: Structural characteristics and justice concerns. Journal of E-Working, 1, 137-153.
36. Haslam, S.A. (2004). Psychology in organizations: The social identity approach (2nd ed.). London: SAGE.
37. Hertel, G., Geister, S., & Konradt, U. (2005). Managing virtual teams: A review of current empirical research. Human Resource Management Review, 15, 69-95. doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2005.01.002.
38. Heyward, M. (2002). From international to intercultural: Redefining the international school for a globalized world. Journal of Research in International Education, 1, 9-32. doi:10.1177/147524090211002.
39. Hindmarsh, J., Heath, C., & Fraser, M. (2006). (Im)materiality, Virtual Reality and Interaction: Grounding the 'virtual' in studies of technology in action. The Sociological Review, 54, 794-816. doi:10.1111/j.1467-954X.2006.00672.x.
40. Hogg, M.A. (1993). Group cohesiveness: A critical review and some new directions. European Review of Social Psychology, 4, 85-111. doi:10.1080/14792779343000031.
41. Hogg, M.A., & Abrams, D. (1988). Social identifications: A social psychology of intergroup relations and group processes. London, UK: Routledge.
42. Hogg, M.A., & Terry, D.J. (2001). Social identity theory and organizational processes. In M. A. Hogg & D. J. Terry (Eds.), Social identity processes in organizational contexts (pp. 1-12). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
43. Hoyt, C.A., Aguiular, L., Kaiser, C.R., Blascovich, J., & Lee, K. (2007). The self-protective and undermining effects of attributional ambiguity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 884-893. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.10.013.
44. Hoyt, C.L., & Blascovich, J. (2003). Transformational and transactional leadership in virtual and physical environments. Small Group Research, 34, 678-715. doi:10.1177/1046496403257527.
45. Hoyt, C.L., & Blascovich, J. (2007). Leadership efficacy and women leaders' responses to Stereotype Activation. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 10, 595-616.
46. Hoyt, C.L., Blascovich, J., & Swinth, K.R. (2003). Social inhibition in immersive virtual environments. Presence, 12, 183-195.
47. Jackson, L.A., Zhao, Y., Kiu, W., Kolenic, A., Fitzgerald, H.E., Harold, R., & Von Eye, A. (2008). Cultural differences in morality in the real and virtual worlds: A comparison of Chinese and U.S. youth. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11, 279-286. doi:10.1089/cpb.2007.0098.
48. Jarvenpaa, S.L., & Leidner, D.E. (1999). Communication and trust in global virtual teams. Organization Science, 10, 791-815. doi:10.1287/orsc.10.6.791.
49. Jung, K.H., & Lee, J.-H. (2009). Implicit and explicit attitude dissociation in spontaneous deceptive behavior. Acta Psychologica, 132, 62-67. doi:10.1016/ j.actpsy.2009.06.004.
50. Kohlberg, L. (1984). The psychology of moral development. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row.
51. Lantz, A. (2001). Meetings in a distributed group of experts: Comparing face-to-face, chat and collaborative virtual environments. Behaviour & Information Technology, 20, 111-117. doi:10.1080/01449290010020693.
52. Lea, M., & Spears, L. (1991). Computer-mediated communication, de-individuation and group decision-making. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 34, 283-301. doi:10.1016/0020-7373(91)90045-9.
53. Linebarger, J.M., Janneck, C.D., & Kessler, G.D. (2005). Leaving the world behind: Supporting group collaboration patterns in a shared virtual environment for product design. Presence, 14, 697-719. doi:10.1162/105474605775196625.
54. Martins, L.L., Gilson, L.L., & Maynard, M.T. (2004). Virtual teams: What do we know and where do we go from here? Journal of Management, 30, 805-835. doi:10.1016/j.jm.2004.05.002.
55. Mortensen, M., & Hinds, P.J. (2001). Conflict and shared identity in geographically distributed teams. International Journal of Conflict Management, 12, 212-238. doi:10.1108/eb022856.
56. Nakanishi, H. (2004). Free walk: A social interaction platform for group behaviour in a virtual space. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 60, 421-454. doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2003.11.003.
57. Nowak, K.L. (2004). The influence of anthropomorphism and agency on social judgment in virtual environments. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 9(2). Retrieved fromhttp://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol9/issue2/nowak.html.
58. Nowak, K.L., & Biocca, F. (2003). The effect of the agency and anthropomorphism on users' sense of telepresence, copresence, and social presence in virtual environments. Presence, 12, 481-494. doi:10.1162/105474603322761289.
59. Nowak, K.L., & Rauh, C. (2005). The influence of the avatar on online perceptions of anthropomorphism, androgyny, credibility, homophily, and attraction. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(1). Retrieved fromhttp://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol11/issue1/nowak.html.
60. Nowak, K.L., & Rauh, C. (2008). Choose your "buddy icon" carefully: The influence of avatar androgyny, anthropomorphism and credibility in online interactions. Computers in Human Behavior, 24, 1473-1493. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.05.005.
61. Peña, J., Hancock, J.T., & Merola, N.A. (2009). The priming effects of avatars in virtual settings. Communication Research, 36, 838-856. doi:10.1177/0093650209346802.
62. Postmes, T., Spears, R., & Lea, M. (1998). Breaching or building social boundaries? Communication Research, 25, 689-699. doi:10.1177/009365098025006006.
63. Rice, R.E., & Gattiker, U.E. (2001). New media and organizational structuring. In F. M. Jablin & L. L. Putnam (Eds.), The new handbook of organizational communication (pp. 544-581). London, UK: SAGE.
64. Riketta, M. (2005). Organizational identification: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, 358-384. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2004.05.005.
65. Sallnäs, E.-L. (2005). Effects of communication mode on social presence, virtual presence, and performance in collaborative virtual environments. Presence, 14, 434-449. doi:10.1162/105474605774785253.
66. Scheck, S., Allmendinger, K., & Hamann, K. (2008). The effects of media richness on multilateral negotiations in a collaborative virtual environment. Journal of Media Psychology, 20, 57-66. doi:10.1027/1864-1105.20.2.57.
67. Sivunen, A. (2006). Strengthening identification with the team in virtual teams: The leaders' perspective. Group Decision and Negotiation, 15, 345-366. doi:10.1007/ s10726-006-9046-6.
68. Slater, M., Sadagic, A., Usoh, M., & Schroeder, R. (2000). Small-group behavior in a virtual and real environment: A comparative study. Presence, 9, 37-51. doi:10.1162/105474600566600.
69. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47). Monterey, GA: Brooks/Cole.
70. Talamo, A., & Ligorio, B. (2001). Strategic identities in cyberspace. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 4, 109-122. doi:10.1089/10949310151088479.
71. Theorell, T., & Karasek, R.A. (1996). Current issues relating to psychosocial job strain and cardiovascular disease. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1, 9-26.
72. Tidwell, L.C., & Walther, J.B. (2002). Computer-mediated communication effects on disclosure, impressions, and interpersonal evaluations: Getting to know one another a bit at a time. Human Communication Research, 28, 317-348. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00811.x.
73. Turner, J.C. (1999). Some current issues in research on social identity and self-categorization theories. In N. Ellemers, R. Spears, & B. Doosje (Eds.), Social identity: Context, commitment, content (pp. 6-34). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
74. Turner, J.C., Hogg, M.A., Oakes, P.J., Reicher, S.D., & Wetherell, M.S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
75. Tyler, T.R., & Blader, S.L. (2001). Identity and cooperative behavior in groups. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 4, 207-226. doi:10.1177/1368430201004003003.
76. Van Knippenberg, D., & van Schie, E.C.M. (2000). Foci and correlates of organizational identification. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73, 137-147.
77. Vasalou, A., & Joinson, A.N. (2009). Me, myself and I: The role of interactional context on self-presentation through avatars. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 510-520. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.11.007.
78. Vasalou, A., Joinson, A., Bänziger, T., Goldie, P., & Pitt, J. (2008). Avatars in social media: Balancing accuracy, playfulness and embodied messages. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 66, 801-811. doi:10.1016/ j.ijhcs.2008.08.002.
79. Vinayagamoorthy, V., Steed, A., & Slater, M. (2008). The impact of a character posture model on the communication of affect in an immersive virtual environment. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, 14, 965-981. doi:10.1109/TVCG.2008.62.
80. Walther, J.B. (1996). Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal, interpersonal, and hyperpersonal interaction. Communication Research, 23, 3-43. doi:10.1177/009365096023001001.
81. Walther, J.B. (2007). Selective self-presentation in computer-mediated communication: Hyperpersonal dimensions of technology, language, and cognition. Computers in Human Behavior, 23, 2538-2557. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2006.05.002.
82. Walther, J.B., & Bunz, U. (2005). The rules of virtual groups: Trust, liking, and performance in computer-mediated communication. Journal of Communication, 55, 828-846. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb03025.x.
83. Williams, D., Caplan, S., & Xiong, L. (2007). Can You Hear Me Now? The Impact of Voice in an Online Gaming Community. Human Communication Research, 33, 427-449. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00306.x.
84. Yee, N. (2006). The demographics, motivations, and derived experiences of users of massively multi-user online graphical environments. Presence, 15, 309-329. doi:10.1162/pres.15.3.309.
85. Yee, N., & Bailenson, J.N. (2007). The Proteus effect: The effect of transformed self-representation on behavior. Human Communication Research, 33, 271-290. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00299.x.
86. Yee, N., & Bailenson, J.N. (2009). The difference between being and seeing: The relative contribution of self-perception and priming to behavioral changes via digital self-representation. Media Psychology, 12, 195-209. doi:10.1080/15213260902849943.
87. Yee, N., Bailenson, J.N., & Ducheneaut, N. (2009). The Proteus effect: Implications of transformed digital self-representation on online and offline behavior. Communication Research, 36, 285-312. doi:10.1177/0093650208330254.
88. Yee, N., Bailenson, J., Urbanek, M., Chang, F., & Merget, D. (2007). The unbearable likeness of being digital: The persistence of nonverbal social norms in online virtual environments. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 10, 115-121. doi:10.1089/ cpb.2006.9984.