Long-term recordings of multiple, single-neurons for clinical applications: The emerging role of the bioactive microelectrode

Materials

Volumn 2, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 1762-1794

  Moxon, Karen A ^a,b   Hallman, Stefanie ^a   Sundarakrishnan, Aswin ^a   Wheatley, Margaret ^a   Nissanov, Jonathan ^a,b   Barbee, Kenneth A ^a  

^a DREXEL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b DREXEL UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Brain machine interface; Electrophysiology; Glial scar; Immunohistochemistry; Microelectrodes; Multiple single; Neuron

Indexed keywords

BRAIN MACHINE INTERFACE; GLIAL SCAR; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; IMMUNOLOGICAL RESPONSE; MICROELECTRODE SURFACES; MULTIPLE-SINGLE; QUANTITATIVE MEASURES; SPINAL CORD INJURIES (SCI);

BRAIN; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; MAMMALS; MEDICAL COMPUTING; MICROELECTRODES; ROBOTIC ARMS;

NEURONS;

EID: 79957776521     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19961944     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ma2041762     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. Chapin, J.K.; Moxon, K.A.; Markowitz, R.S.; Nicolelis, M.A. Real-time control of a robot arm using simultaneously recorded neurons in the motor cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 1999, 2, 664-670.
2. Hochberg, L.R.; Serruya, M.D.; Friehs, G.M.; Mukand, J.A.; Saleh, M.; Caplan, A.H.; Branner, A.; Chen, D.; Penn, R.D.; Donoghue, J.P. Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia. Nature 2006, 442, 164-171.
3. Winter, J.O.; Cogan, S.F.; Rizzo, J.F. 3rd Neurotrophin-eluting hydrogel coatings for neural stimulating electrodes. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater. 2007, 81, 551-563.
4. Bell, T.E.; Wise, K.D.; Anderson, D.J. A flexible micromachined electrode array for a cochlear prosthesis. Sens. Actuators A 1998, 66, 63-69.
5. Moxon, K.A.; Morizio, J.; Chapin, J.K.; Nicolelis, M.A.L.; Wolf, P.D. Designing a brainmachine interface for neuroprosthetic control. In Neural Prostheses for Restoration of Sensory and Motor Function; Chapin, J.K., Moxon, K.A., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2000; pp. 179-220.
6. Polikov, V.S.; Tresco, P.A.; Reichert, W.M. Response of brain tissue to chronically implanted neural electrodes. J. Neurosci. Methods 2005, 148, 1-18.
7. Grill, W.M.; Norman, S.E.; Bellamkonda, R.V. Implanted neural interfaces: biochallenges and engineered solutions. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 2009, 11, 1-24.
8. Moxon, K.A. Multichannel electrode design: Considerations for different applications. In Methods for Neural Ensemble Recordings; Nicolelis, M.A.L., Ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1999; pp. 25-45.
9. Kennedy, P.R.; Bakay, R.A. Restoration of neural output from a paralyzed patient by a direct brain connection. Neuroreport 1998, 9, 1707-1711.
10. Kennedy, P.R.; Bakay, R.A.; Moore, M.M.; Adams, K.; Goldwaithe, J. Direct control of a computer from the human central nervous system. IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng. 2000, 8, 198-202.
11. Moxon, K.A.; Kuzmick, V.; Lafferty, J.; Serfass, A.; Szperka, D.; Zale, B.; Johnson, J.; Nagvajara, P. Real-time seizure detection system using multiple single-neuron recordings. In Proceedings of the 23rd Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, Istanbul, Turkey, October 25-28, 2001.
12. Suner, S.; Fellows, M.R.; Vargas-Irwin, C.; Nakata, G.K.; Donoghue, J.P. Reliability of signals from a chronically implanted, silicon-based electrode array in non-human primate primary motor cortex. IEEE Trans. Neural. Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 2005, 13, 524-541.
13. Lebedev, M.A.; Nicolelis, M.A. Brain-machine interfaces: Past, present and future. Trends Neurosci. 2006, 29, 536-546.
14. Kipke, D.R.; Vetter, R.J.; Williams, J.C.; Hetke, J.F. Silicon-substrate intracortical microelectrode arrays for long-term recording of neuronal spike activity in cerebral cortex. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 2003, 11, 151-155.
15. Szarowski, D.H.; Andersen, M.D.; Retterer, S.; Spence, A.J.; Isaacson, M.; Craighead, H.G.; Turner, J.N.; Shain, W. Brain responses to micro-machined silicon devices. Brain Res. 2003, 983, 23-35.
16. Vetter, R.J.; Williams, J.C.; Hetke, J.F.; Nunamaker, E.A.; Kipke, D.R. Chronic neural recording using silicon-substrate microelectrode arrays implanted in cerebral cortex. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 2004, 51, 896-904.
17. Moxon, K.A.; Kalkhoran, N.M.; Markert, M.; Sambito, M.A.; McKenzie, J.L.; Webster, J.T. Nanostructured surface modification of ceramic-based microelectrodes to enhance biocompatibility for a direct brain-machine interface. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 2004, 51, 881-889.
18. Hsu, J.M.; Rieth, L.; Normann, R.A.; Tathireddy, P.; Solzbacher, F. Encapsulation of an integrated neural interface device with Parylene C. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 2009, 56, 23-29.
19. Seymour, J.P.; Elkasabi, Y.M.; Chen, H.Y.; Lahann, J.; Kipke, D.R. The insulation performance of reactive parylene films in implantable electronic devices. Biomaterials 2009, 30, 6158-6167.
20. Moxon, K.A.; Leiser, S.C.; Gerhardt, G.A.; Barbee, K.A.; Chapin, J.K. Ceramic-based multisite electrode arrays for chronic single-neuron recording. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 2004, 51, 647-656.
21. Biran, R.; Martin, D.C.; Tresco, P.A. Neuronal cell loss accompanies the brain tissue response to chronically implanted silicon microelectrode arrays. Exp. Neurol. 2005, 195, 115-126.
22. Schultz, R.L.; Willey, T.J. The ultrastructure of the sheath around chronically implanted electrodes in brain. J. Neurocytol. 1976, 5, 621-642.
23. Edell, D.J.; Toi, V.V.; McNeil, V.M.; Clark, L.D. Factors influencing the biocompatibility of insertable silicon microshafts in cerebral cortex. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 1992, 39, 635-643.
24. Fitch, M.T.; Silver, J. Activated macrophages and the blood-brain barrier: inflammation after CNS injury leads to increases in putative inhibitory molecules. Exp. Neurol. 1997, 148, 587-603.
25. Anderson, J.M.; Rodriguez, A.; Chang, D.T. Foreign body reaction to biomaterials. Semin. Immunol. 2008, 20, 86-100.
26. Liu, X.; McCreery, D.B.; Carter, R.R.; Bullara, L.A.; Yuen, T.G.; Agnew, W.F. Stability of the interface between neural tissue and chronically implanted intracortical microelectrodes. IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng. 1999, 7, 315-326.
27. Giulian, D.; Chen, J.; Ingeman, J.E.; George, J.K.; Noponen, M. The role of mononuclear phagocytes in wound-healing after traumatic injury to adult mammalian brain. J. Neurosci. 1989, 9, 4416-4429.
28. Kahn, M.A.; Ellison, J.A.; Speight, G.J.; de Vellis, J. CNTF regulation of astrogliosis and the activation of microglia in the developing rat central nervous system. Brain Res. 1995, 685, 55-67.
29. Rostworowski, M.; Balasingam, V.; Chabot, S.; Owens, T.; Yong, V.W. Astrogliosis in the neonatal and adult murine brain post-trauma: elevation of inflammatory cytokines and the lack of requirement for endogenous interferon-gamma. J. Neurosci. 1997, 17, 3664-3674.
30. Fawcett, J.W.; Asher, R.A. The glial scar and central nervous system repair. Brain Res. Bull. 1999, 49, 377-391.
31. Raivich, G.; Haas, S.; Werner, A.; Klein, M.A.; Kloss, C.; Kreutzberg, G.W. Regulation of MCSF receptors on microglia in the normal and injured mouse central nervous system: A quantitative immunofluorescence study using confocal laser microscopy. J. Comp. Neurol. 1998, 395, 342-358.
32. Elkabes, S.; DiCicco-Bloom, E.M.; Black, I.B. Brain microglia/macrophages express neurotrophins that selectively regulate microglial proliferation and function. J. Neurosci. 1996, 16, 2508-2521.
33. Goss, J.R.; O'Malley, M.E.; Zou, L.; Styren, S.D.; Kochanek, P.M.; DeKosky, S.T. Astrocytes are the major source of nerve growth factor upregulation following traumatic brain injury in the rat. Exp. Neurol. 1998, 149, 301-309.
34. Raivich, G.; Bohatschek, M.; Kloss, C.U.; Werner, A.; Jones, L.L.; Kreutzberg, G.W. Neuroglial activation repertoire in the injured brain: graded response, molecular mechanisms and cues to physiological function. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 1999, 30, 77-105.
35. Nakajima, K.; Honda, S.; Tohyama, Y.; Imai, Y.; Kohsaka, S.; Kurihara, T. Neurotrophin secretion from cultured microglia. J. Neurosci. Res. 2001, 65, 322-331.
36. Woodroofe, M.N.; Sarna, G.S.; Wadhwa, M.; Hayes, G.M.; Loughlin, A.J.; Tinker, A.; Cuzner, M.L. Detection of interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 in adult rat brain, following mechanical injury, by in vivo microdialysis: Evidence of a role for microglia in cytokine production. J. Neuroimmunol. 1991, 33, 227-236.
37. Sheng, W.S.; Hu, S.; Kravitz, F.H.; Peterson, P.K.; Chao, C.C. Tumor necrosis factor alpha upregulates human microglial cell production of interleukin-10 in vitro. Clin. Diagn. Lab Immunol. 1995, 2, 604-608.
38. Kossmann, T.; Hans, V.H.; Imhof, H.G.; Stocker, R.; Grob, P.; Trentz, O.; Morganti-Kossmann, C. Intrathecal and serum interleukin-6 and the acute-phase response in patients with severe traumatic brain injuries. Shock 1995, 4, 311-317.
39. Babcock, A.A.; Kuziel, W.A.; Rivest, S.; Owens, T. Chemokine expression by glial cells directs leukocytes to sites of axonal injury in the CNS. J. Neurosci. 2003, 23, 7922-7930.
40. Minghetti, L.; Levi, G. Microglia as effector cells in brain damage and repair: Focus on prostanoids and nitric oxide. Prog. Neurobiol. 1998, 54, 99-125.
41. Koyama, Y.; Takemura, M.; Fujiki, K.; Ishikawa, N.; Shigenaga, Y.; Baba, A. BQ788, an endothelin ET(B) receptor antagonist, attenuates stab wound injury-induced reactive astrocytes in rat brain. Glia 1999, 26, 268-271.
42. Fitch, M.T.; Doller, C.; Combs, C.K.; Landreth, G.E.; Silver, J. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of glial scarring and progressive cavitation: In vivo and in vitro analysis of inflammation-induced secondary injury after CNS trauma. J. Neurosci. 1999, 19, 8182-8198.
43. Giulian, D.; Li, J.; Leara, B.; Keenen, C. Phagocytic microglia release cytokines and cytotoxins that regulate the survival of astrocytes and neurons in culture. Neurochem. Int. 1994, 25, 227-233.
44. Svensson, M.; Eriksson, N.P.; Aldskogius, H. Evidence for activation of astrocytes via reactive microglial cells following hypoglossal nerve transection. J. Neurosci. Res. 1993, 35, 373-381.
45. Balasingam, V.; Tejada-Berges, T.; Wright, E.; Bouckova, R.; Yong, V.W. Reactive astrogliosis in the neonatal mouse brain and its modulation by cytokines. J. Neurosci. 1994, 14, 846-856.
46. Eddleston, M.; Mucke, L. Molecular profile of reactive astrocytes--implications for their role in neurologic disease. Neuroscience 1993, 54, 15-36.
47. Yang, H.Y.; Lieska, N.; Kriho, V.; Wu, C.M.; Pappas, G.D. A subpopulation of reactive astrocytes at the immediate site of cerebral cortical injury. Exp. Neurol. 1997, 146, 199-205.
48. Raghupathi, R.; Graham, D.I.; McIntosh, T.K. Apoptosis after traumatic brain injury. J. Neurotrauma 2000, 17, 927-938.
49. McConnell, G.C.; Rees, H.D.; Levey, A.I.; Gutekunst, C.A.; Gross, R.E.; Bellamkonda, R.V. Implanted neural electrodes cause chronic, local inflammation that is correlated with local neurodegeneration. J. Neural. Eng. 2009, 6, 56003.
50. Turner, J.N.; Shain, W.; Szarowski, D.H.; Andersen, M.; Martins, S.; Isaacson, M.; Craighead, H. Cerebral astrocyte response to micromachined silicon implants. Exp. Neurol. 1999, 156, 33-49.
51. Schmidt, C.E.; Leach, J.B. Neural tissue engineering: strategies for repair and regeneration. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 2003, 5, 293-347.
52. Leung, B.K.; Biran, R.; Underwood, C.J.; Tresco, P.A. Characterization of microglial attachment and cytokine release on biomaterials of differing surface chemistry. Biomaterials 2008, 29, 3289-3297.
53. Porada, I.; Bondar, I.; Spatz, W.B.; Kruger, J. Rabbit and monkey visual cortex: More than a year of recording with up to 64 microelectrodes. J. Neurosci. Methods 2000, 95, 13-28.
54. Merrill, D.R.; Tresco, P.A. Impedance characterization of microarray recording electrodes in vitro. Conf. Proc. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc. 2004, 6, 4349-4352.
55. Williams, J.C.; Hippensteel, J.A.; Dilgen, J.; Shain, W.; Kipke, D.R. Complex impedance spectroscopy for monitoring tissue responses to inserted neural implants. J. Neural Eng. 2007, 4, 410-423.
56. Johnson, M.D.; Kao, O.E.; Kipke, D.R. Spatiotemporal pH dynamics following insertion of neural microelectrode arrays. J. Neurosci. Methods 2007, 160, 276-287.
57. He, W.; McConnell, G.C.; Bellamkonda, R.V. Nanoscale laminin coating modulates cortical scarring response around implanted silicon microelectrode arrays. J. Neural Eng. 2006, 3, 316-326.
58. He, W.; McConnell, G.C.; Schneider, T.M.; Bellamkonda, R.V. A novel anti-inflammatory surface for neural electrodes. Adv. Mater. 2007, 19, 3529-3533.
59. Bjornsson, C.S.; Oh, S.J.; Al-Kofahi, Y.A.; Lim, Y.J.; Smith, K.L.; Turner, J.N.; De, S.; Roysam, B.; Shain, W.; Kim, S.J. Effects of insertion conditions on tissue strain and vascular damage during neuroprosthetic device insertion. J. Neural Eng. 2006, 3, 196-207.
60. Kralik, J.D.; Dimitrov, D.F.; Krupa, D.J.; Katz, D.B.; Cohen, D.; Nicolelis, M.A. Techniques for long-term multisite neuronal ensemble recordings in behaving animals. Methods 2001, 25, 121-150.
61. Paralikar, K.J.; Clement, R.S. Collagenase-aided intracortical microelectrode array insertion: Effects on insertion force and recording performance. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 2008, 55, 2258-2267.
62. Rousche, P.J.; Normann, R.A. A method for pneumatically inserting an array of penetrating electrodes into cortical tissue. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 1992, 20, 413-422.
63. Stice, P.; Gilletti, A.; Panitch, A.; Muthuswamy, J. Thin microelectrodes reduce GFAP expression in the implant site in rodent somatosensory cortex. J. Neural Eng. 2007, 4, 42-53.
64. Rosenthal, F. Extracellular potential fields of single PT-neurons. Brain Res. 1972, 36, 251-263.
65. Buzsaki, G.; Kandel, A. Somadendritic backpropagation of action potentials in cortical pyramidal cells of the awake rat. J. Neurophysiol. 1998, 79, 1587-1591.
66. Mountcastle, V.B.; Davies, P.W.; Berman, A.L. Response properties of neurons of cat's somatic sensory cortex to peripheral stimuli. J. Neurophysiol. 1957, 20, 374-407.
67. Zhong, Y.; Yu, X.; Gilbert, R.; Bellamkonda, R.V. Stabilizing electrode-host interfaces: A tissue engineering approach. J. Rehabil. Res. Dev. 2001, 38, 627-632.
68. Subbaroyan, J.; Martin, D.C.; Kipke, D.R. A finite-element model of the mechanical effects of implantable microelectrodes in the cerebral cortex. J. Neural Eng. 2005, 2, 103-113.
69. Lee, H.; Bellamkonda, R.V.; Sun, W.; Levenston, M.E. Biomechanical analysis of silicon microelectrode-induced strain in the brain. J. Neural Eng. 2005, 2, 81-89.
70. He, W.; Bellamkonda, R.V. Nanoscale neuro-integrative coatings for neural implants. Biomaterials 2005, 26, 2983-2990.
71. McConnell, G.C.; Schneider, T.M.; Owens, D.J.; Bellamkonda, R.V. Extraction force and cortical tissue reaction of silicon microelectrode arrays implanted in the rat brain. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 2007, 54, 1097-1107.
72. Straley, K.S.; Heilshorn, S.C. Design and adsorption of modular engineered proteins to prepare customized, neuron-compatible coatings. Front Neuroengineering 2009, 2, 9.
73. Chen, J.; Wise, K.D.; Hetke, J.F.; Bledsoe, S.C., Jr. A multichannel neural probe for selective chemical delivery at the cellular level. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 1997, 44, 760-769.
74. Rathnasingham, R.; Kipke, D.R.; Bledsoe, S.C., Jr.; McLaren, J.D. Characterization of implantable microfabricated fluid delivery devices. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 2004, 51, 138-145.
75. Retterer, S.T.; Smith, K.L.; Bjornsson, C.S.; Neeves, K.B.; Spence, A.J.; Turner, J.N.; Shain, W.; Isaacson, M.S. Model neural prostheses with integrated microfluidics: A potential intervention strategy for controlling reactive cell and tissue responses. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 2004, 51, 2063-2073.
76. Retterer, S.T.; Smith, K.L.; Bjornsson, C.S.; Turner, J.N.; Isaacson, M.S.; Shain, W. Constant pressure fluid infusion into rat neocortex from implantable microfluidic devices. J. Neural. Eng. 2008, 5, 385-391.
77. Willerth, S.M.; Sakiyama-Elbert, S.E. Approaches to neural tissue engineering using scaffolds for drug delivery. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2007, 59, 325-338.
78. Dipaolo, B.C. Biodegradable Polymer Scaffolding for Improved Neural Electrode Biocompatibility; Drexel University: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2003.
79. Azemi, E.; Stauffer, W.R.; Gostock, M.S.; Lagenaur, C.F.; Cui, X.T. Surface immobilization of neural adhesion molecule L1 for improving the biocompatibility of chronic neural probes: In vitro characterization. Acta Biomater. 2008, 4, 1208-1217.
80. Cui, X.; Lee, V.A.; Raphael, Y.; Wiler, J.A.; Hetke, J.F.; Anderson, D.J.; Martin, D.C. Surface modification of neural recording electrodes with conducting polymer/biomolecule blends. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 2001, 56, 261-272.
81. Green, R.A.; Lovell, N.H.; Wallace, G.G.; Poole-Warren, L.A. Conducting polymers for neural interfaces: challenges in developing an effective long-term implant. Biomaterials 2008, 29, 3393-3399.
82. Diaz, A.F.; Castillo, J.I.; Logan, J.A.; Lee, W.Y. Electrochemistry of conducting polypyrrole films. J. Electroanal. Chem. 1981, 129, 115-132.
83. Wong, J.Y.; Langer, R.; Ingber, D.E. Electrically conducting polymers can noninvasively control the shape and growth of mammalian cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1994, 91, 3201-3204.
84. Kim, K.H.; Kim, S.J. Method for unsupervised classification of multiunit neural signal recording under low signal-to-noise ratio. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 2003, 50, 421-431.
85. Xiao, Y.; Martin, D.C.; Cui, X.; Shenai, M. Surface modification of neural probes with conducting polymer poly(hydroxymethylated-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) and its biocompatibility. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2006, 128, 117-130.
86. Ludwig, K.A.; Uram, J.D.; Yang, J.; Martin, D.C.; Kipke, D.R. Chronic neural recordings using silicon microelectrode arrays electrochemically deposited with a poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) film. J. Neural. Eng. 2006, 3, 59-70.
87. Cui, Q.; Pollett, M.A.; Symons, N.A.; Plant, G.W.; Harvey, A.R. A new approach to CNS repair using chimeric peripheral nerve grafts. J. Neurotrauma 2003, 20, 17-31.
88. Kim, D.H.; Wiler, J.A.; Anderson, D.J.; Kipke, D.R.; Martin, D.C. Conducting polymers on hydrogel-coated neural electrode provide sensitive neural recordings in auditory cortex. Acta Biomater. 2009, doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2009.07.034.
89. Green, R.A.; Williams, C.M.; Lovell, N.H.; Poole-Warren, L.A. Novel neural interface for implant electrodes: improving electroactivity of polypyrrole through MWNT incorporation. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 2008, 19, 1625-1629.
90. Tomobe, Y.I.; Hama, H.; Sakurai, T.; Fujimori, A.; Abe, Y.; Goto, K. Anticoagulant factor protein S inhibits the proliferation of rat astrocytes after injury. Neurosci. Lett. 1996, 214, 57-60.
91. Lindholm, D.; Castren, E.; Kiefer, R.; Zafra, F.; Thoenen, H. Transforming growth factor-beta 1 in the rat brain: Increase after injury and inhibition of astrocyte proliferation. J. Cell Biol. 1992, 117, 395-400.
92. Klaver, C.L.; Caplan, M.R. Bioactive surface for neural electrodes: Decreasing astrocyte proliferation via transforming growth factor-beta1. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2007, 81, 1011-1016.
93. Kennedy, P.R. The cone electrode-A long-term electrode that records from neurites grown onto its recording surface. J. Neurosci. Methods 1989, 29, 181-193.
94. Kennedy, P.R.; Bakay, R.A.; Sharpe, S.M. Behavioral correlates of action potentials recorded chronically inside the cone electrode. Neuroreport 1992, 3, 605-608.
95. Kennedy, P.R.; Bakay, R.A. Activity of single action potentials in monkey motor cortex during long-term task learning. Brain Res. 1997, 760, 251-254.
96. Jun, S.B.; Hynd, M.R.; Dowell-Mesfin, N.M.; Al-Kofahi, Y.; Roysam, B.; Shain, W.; Kim, S.J. Modulation of cultured neural networks using neurotrophin release from hydrogel-coated microelectrode arrays. J. Neural. Eng. 2008, 5, 203-213.
97. Shain, W.; Spataro, L.; Dilgen, J.; Haverstick, K.; Retterer, S.; Isaacson, M.; Saltzman, M.; Turner, J.N. Controlling cellular reactive responses around neural prosthetic devices using peripheral and local intervention strategies. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 2003, 11, 186-188.
98. Spataro, L.; Dilgen, J.; Retterer, S.; Spence, A.J.; Isaacson, M.; Turner, J.N.; Shain, W. Dexamethasone treatment reduces astroglia responses to inserted neuroprosthetic devices in rat neocortex. Exp. Neurol. 2005, 194, 289-300.
99. Zhong, Y.; Bellamkonda, R.V. Dexamethasone-coated neural probes elicit attenuated inflammatory response and neuronal loss compared to uncoated neural probes. Brain Res. 2007, 1148, 15-27.
100. Kim, D.H.; Martin, D.C. Sustained release of dexamethasone from hydrophilic matrices using PLGA nanoparticles for neural drug delivery. Biomaterials 2006, 27, 3031-3037.
101. Zhong, Y.; Bellamkonda, R.V. Controlled release of anti-inflammatory agent alpha-MSH from neural implants. J. Control Release 2005, 106, 309-318.
102. Serbest, G.; Horwitz, J.; Jost, M.; Barbee, K. Mechanisms of cell death and neuroprotection by poloxamer 188 after mechanical trauma. FASEB J. 2006, 20, 308-310.
103. Serbest, G.; Horwitz, J.; Barbee, K. The effect of poloxamer-188 on neuronal cell recovery from mechanical injury. J. Neurotrauma 2005, 22, 119-132.
104. Raffa, V.; Pensabene, V.; Menciassi, A.; Dario, P. Design criteria of neuron/electrode interface. The focused ion beam technology as an analytical method to investigate the effect of electrode surface morphology on neurocompatibility. Biomed. Microdevices 2007, 9, 371-383.
105. McKenzie, J.L.; Waid, M.C.; Shi, R.; Webster, T.J. Decreased functions of astrocytes on carbon nanofiber materials. Biomaterials 2004, 25, 1309-1317.
106. Canham, L.T. Bioactive silicon structure fabrication through nanoetching techniques. Adv. Mater. 1995, 7, 1033-1037.
107. Moxon, K.A.; Hallman, S.; Aslani, A.; Kalkhoran, N.M.; Lelkes, P.I. Bioactive properties of nanostructured porous silicon for enhancing electrode to neuron interfaces. J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed. 2007, 18, 1263-1281.
108. Lee, K.; Singh, A.; He, J.P.; Massia, S.; Kim, B.; Raupp, G. Polyimide based neural implants with stiffness improvement. Sens. Actuators B 2004, 102, 67-72.
109. Takeuchi, S.; Ziegler, D.; Yoshida, Y.; Mabuchi, K.; Suzuki, T. Parylene flexible neural probes integrated with microfluidic channels. Lab Chip 2005, 5, 519-523.
110. Rousche, P.J.; Pellinen, D.S.; Pivin, D.P., Jr.; Williams, J.C.; Vetter, R.J.; Kipke, D.R. Flexible polyimide-based intracortical electrode arrays with bioactive capability. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 2001, 48, 361-371.
111. Spence, A.J.; Neeves, K.B.; Murphy, D.; Sponberg, S.; Land, B.R.; Hoy, R.R.; Isaacson, M.S. Flexible multielectrodes can resolve multiple muscles in an insect appendage. J. Neurosci. Methods 2007, 159, 116-124.
112. Ommaya, A.K. Trauma to the nervous system. Ann. R Coll. Surg. Engl. 1966, 39, 317-347.
113. Kozai, T.D.; Kipke, D.R. Insertion shuttle with carboxyl terminated self-assembled monolayer coatings for implanting flexible polymer neural probes in the brain. J. Neurosci. Methods 2009, doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2009.08.002.
114. Hetke, J.F.; Lund, J.L.; Najafi, K.; Wise, K.D.; Anderson, D.J. Silicon ribbon cables for chronically implantable microelectrode arrays. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 1994, 41, 314-321.
115. Biran, R.; Martin, D.C.; Tresco, P.A. The brain tissue response to implanted silicon microelectrode arrays is increased when the device is tethered to the skull. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2007, 82, 169-178.
116. Loeb, G.E.; Peck, R.A.; Moore, W.H.; Hood, K. BION system for distributed neural prosthetic interfaces. Med. Eng. Phys. 2001, 23, 9-18.
117. Cameron, T.; Liinamaa, T.L.; Loeb, G.E.; Richmond, F.J. Long-term biocompatibility of a miniature stimulator implanted in feline hind limb muscles. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 1998, 45, 1024-1035.
118. Wu, A.C.; Spuhler, P.S.; Unlu, M.S.; Sahin, M. Floating Microfabricated Wireless Neuro-Stimulators. In Annual Fall Meeting of Biomedical Engineering Society, Los Angeles, CA, USA, September 26-29, 2007.
119. Obeid, I.; Morizio, J.C.; Moxon, K.A.; Nicolelis, M.A.; Wolf, P.D. Two multichannel integrated circuits for neural recording and signal processing. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 2003, 50, 255-258.
120. Canham, L.T. Silicon quantum wire array fabrication by electrochemical and chemical dissolution of wafers. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1990, 57, 1046-1048.
121. Lehmann, V.; Gosele, U. Porous silicon formation-A quantum wire effect. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1991, 58, 856-858.
122. Lee, J.S.; Cho, N.H. Nanostructural and photoluminescence features of nanoporous silicon prepared by anodic etching. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2002, 190, 171-175.
123. Huang, M.J.; Yang, C.R.; Chiou, Y.C.; Lee, R.T. Fabrication of nanoporous antireflection surfaces on silicon. Sol. Energ. Mat. Sol. C. 2008, 92, 1352-1357.
124. Martinez-Duart, J.M.; Martin-Palma, R.J. Photodetectors and solar cells based on porous silicon. Phys. Status Solidi B 2002, 232, 81-88.