Basic mechanisms of antiepileptic drugs and their pharmacokinetic/ pharmacodynamic interactions: An update

Pharmacological Reports

Volumn 63, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 271-292

  Lasoń, Władysław ^a,b   Dudra Jastrzȩbska, Monika ^c,d   Rejdak, Konrad ^c   Czuczwar, Stanisław J ^c,d  

^a POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES   (Poland)

^b JAGIELLONIAN UNIVERSITY   (Poland)

^c MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF LUBLIN   (Poland)

^d INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURAL MEDICINE   (Poland)

Author keywords

Antiepileptic drugs; Drug interactions; Epilepsy; Seizures

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID A RECEPTOR; 4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID C RECEPTOR; ACETAZOLAMIDE; AMPA RECEPTOR; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; BARBITURIC ACID DERIVATIVE; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CALCIUM ION; CARBAMAZEPINE; ETHOSUXIMIDE; ETIRACETAM; FELBAMATE; GABAPENTIN; LAMOTRIGINE; METHYLPHENOBARBITAL; OXCARBAZEPINE; PHENYTOIN; POTASSIUM ION; PREGABALIN; PRIMIDONE; RETIGABINE; SODIUM ION; SULTIAME; TALAMPANEL; TIAGABINE; TOPIRAMATE; UNINDEXED DRUG; VALPROIC ACID; VIGABATRIN; ZONISAMIDE;

ADD ON THERAPY; ANTICONVULSANT ACTIVITY; CONVULSION; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG PROTEIN BINDING; DRUG TARGETING; EPILEPSY; EPILEPTIC STATE; FOCAL EPILEPSY; GABAERGIC SYSTEM; GABAERGIC TRANSMISSION; GENERALIZED EPILEPSY; GRAND MAL SEIZURE; HUMAN; INTERNEURON; LENNOX GASTAUT SYNDROME; MYOCLONUS SEIZURE; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NONHUMAN; PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION; PSYCHOMOTOR SEIZURE; REVIEW; ROLANDIC EPILEPSY; SEIZURE; SYNAPTIC INHIBITION; TONIC CLONIC SEIZURE; TREATMENT INDICATION;

EID: 79955976431     PISSN: 22995684     EISSN: 22995684     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1734-1140(11)70497-2     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Armijo JA, Shushtarian M, Valdizan EM, Cuadrado A, de las Cuevas I, Adin J: Ion channels and epilepsy. Curr Pharm Des, 2005, 11, 1975-2003.
2. Barnes GN, Slevin JT: Ionotropic glutamate receptor biology: effect on synaptic connectivity and function in neurological disease. Curr Med Chem, 2003, 10, 2059-2072. (Pubitemid 37139063)
3. Barrese V, Miceli F, Soldovieri MV, Ambrosino P, Iamotti FA, Cilio MR, Taglialatela M: Neuronal potassium channel openers in the management of epilepsy: role and potential of retigabine. Clin Pharmacol, 2010, 2, 225-236.
4. Basta-Kaim A, Budziszewska B, Leśkiewicz M, Kubera M, Jagła G, Nowak W, Czuczwar SJ, Lasoń W: Effects of new antiepileptic drugs and progabide on the mitogen-induced proliferative activity of mouse splenocytes. Pharmacol Rep, 2008, 60, 925-932.
5. Beyreuther BK, Freitag J, Heers C, Krebsfänger N, Scharfenecker U, Stöhr T: Lacosamide: a review of preclinical properties. CNS Drug Rev, 2007, 13, 21-42. (Pubitemid 46697839)
6. Bialer M: New antiepileptic drugs that are second generation to existing antiepileptic drugs. Expert Opin Investig Drugs, 2006, 15, 637-647.
7. Bialer M, Johannessen SI, Kupferberg HJ, Levy RH, Perucca E, Tomson T: Progress report on new antiepileptic drugs: a summary of the Eigth Eilat Conference (EILAT VIII). Epilepsy Res, 2007, 73, 1-52.
8. Borowicz KK, Świa̧der M, Łuszczki J, Czuczwar SJ: Effect of gabapentin on the anticonvulsant activity of antiepileptic drugs against maximal electroshock in mice - an isobolographic analysis. Epilepsia, 2002, 43, 956-963.
9. Brodie MJ: Felbamate: a new antiepileptic drug. Lancet, 1993, 341, 1445-1446.
10. Brodie MJ, Lerche H, Gil-Nagel A, Elger C, Hall S, Shin P, Nohria V, Mansbach H; RESTORE 2 Study Group: Efficacy and safety of adjunctive ezogabine (retigabine) in refractory partial epilepsy. Neurology, 2010, 75, 1817-1824.
11. Chrościńska-Krawczyk M, Rastnaraj N, Patsalos PN, Czuczwar SJ: Effect of caffeine on the anticonvulsant effects of oxcarbazepine, lamotrigine and tiagabine in a mouse model of generalized tonic-clonic seizures. Pharmacol Rep, 2009, 61, 819-826.
12. Coulter DA, Huguenard JR, Prince DA: Calcium currents in rat thalamocortical relay neurones: kinetic properties of the transient, low-threshold current. J Physiol, 1989, 414, 587-604. (Pubitemid 19177320)
13. Czapiński P, Błaszczyk B, Czuczwar SJ: Mechanisms of action of antiepileptic drugs. Curr Top Med Chem, 2005, 5, 3-14. (Pubitemid 40202106)
14. Czuczwar SJ, Kapłański J, Świderska-Dziewit G, Gergont A, Kroczka S, Kacinski M: Pharmacodynamic interactions between antiepileptic drugs: preclinical data based on isobolography. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol, 2009, 5, 1-6.
15. Czuczwar SJ, Patsalos PN: The new generation of GABA enhancers. CNS Drugs, 2001, 15, 339-350.
16. Czuczwar SJ, Borowicz KK: Polytherapy in epilepsy: the experimental evidence. Epilepsy Res, 2002, 52, 15-23. (Pubitemid 35351528)
17. Czuczwar P, Wojtak A, Cioczek-Czuczwar A, Parada-Turska J, Maciejewski R, Czuczwar SJ: Retigabine: the newer potential antiepileptic drug. Pharmacol Rep, 2010, 62, 211-219.
18. Dalby NO, Nielsen EB: Comparison of the preclinical anticonvulsant profiles of tiagabine, lamotrigine, gabapentin and vigabatrin. Epilepsy Res, 1997, 28, 63-72. (Pubitemid 27306795)
19. Dam M, Ekberg R, Lřyning Y, Waltimo O, Jakobsen K: A double-blind study comparing oxcarbazepine and carbamazepine in patients with newly diagnosed, previously untreated epilepsy. Epilepsy Res, 1989, 3, 70-76. (Pubitemid 19009372)
20. Davies JA: Mechanisms of action of antiepileptic drugs. Seizure, 1995, 4, 267-271.
21. Deckers CLP, Czuczwar SJ, Hekster YA, Keyser A, Kubova H, Meinardi H, Patsalos PN et al.: Selection of antiepileptic drug polytherapy based on mechanism of action: The evidence reviewed. Epilepsia, 2000, 41, 1364-1374.
22. De Romanis F, Sopranzi N: Lamotrigine in the therapy of resistant epilepsy. Clin Ter, 1999, 150, 279-282.
23. De Sarro G, Di Paola ED, Conte G, Pasculli MP, De Sarro A: Influence of retigabine on the anticonvulsant activity of some antiepileptic drugs against audiogenic seizures in DBA/2 mice. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol, 2001, 363, 330-336 (Pubitemid 32186532)
24. De Sarro G, Gitto R, Russo E, Ibbadu GF, Barreca ML, De Luca L, Chimirri A: AMPA receptor antagonists as potential anticonvulsant drugs. Curr Top Med Chem, 2005, 5, 31-42. (Pubitemid 40202108)
25. Doty P, Rudd GD, Stoehr T, Thomas D: Lacosamide. Neurotherapeutics, 2007, 4, 145-148. (Pubitemid 46107317)
26. Dichter MA, Brodie MJ: New antiepileptic drugs. N Engl J Med, 1996, 334, 1583-1590. (Pubitemid 26177488)
27. Dickins M, Chen C: Lamotrigine. Chemistry, biotrasformation and pharmacokinetics. In: Antiepileptic Drugs. Eds. Levy RH, Mattson RH, Meldrum BS, Perucca E, Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2002, 370-379.
28. Eadie MJ: Formation of active metabolites of anticonvulsant drugs. Areview of their pharmacokinetic and therapeutic significance. Clin Pharmacokinet, 1991, 21, 27-41.
29. Enz R, Cutting GR: Molecular composition of GABAC receptors. Vision Res, 1998, 38, 1431-1441.
30. Fattore C, Cippola G, Gatti G, Limido GL, Sturm Y, Bernsconi C, Perucca E: Induction of ethinylestradiol and levonorgestrel metabolism by oxcarbazepine in healthy women. Epilepsia, 1999, 40, 783-787. (Pubitemid 29260720)
31. Gil-Nagel A: Does mode of action predict spectrum of efficacy and side-effect profile? In: Antiepileptic Drug Therapy: Does Mechanism of Action Matter? Radisson Edwardian Heathrow Hotel, London, UK, Monday 7 June 2010.
32. Hancock E, Osborne JP: Vigabatrin in the treatment of infantile spasms in tuberous sclerosis: literature review. J Child Neurol, 1999, 14, 71-74. (Pubitemid 29146614)
33. Harris JA, Murphy JA: Lacosamide and epilepsy. CNS Neurosci Ther, 2010, 15.
34. Hough CJ, Irwin RP, Gao XM, Rogawski MA, Chuang DM: Carbamazepine inhibition of N-methyl-D-aspartate-evoked calcium influx in rat cerebellar granule cells. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 1996, 276, 143-149.
35. Howes JF, Bell C: Talampanel. Neurotherapeutics, 2007, 4, 126-129. (Pubitemid 46107320)
36. Iwamoto FM, Kreisl TN, Kim L, Duic JP, Butman JA, Albert PS, Fine HA: Phase 2 trial of talampanel, a glutamate receptor inhibitor, for adults with recurrent malignant gliomas. Cancer, 2010, 116, 1776-1782.
37. Jacobs MP, Fischbach GD, Davis MR, Dichter MA, Dingledine R, Lowenstein DH, Morrell MJ et al.: Future directions for epilepsy research. Neurology, 2001, 57, 1536-1542. (Pubitemid 33055465)
38. Jakus R, Graf M, Ando RD, Balogh B, Gacsaly I, Levay G, Kantor S, Bagdy G: Effect of two noncompetitive AMPA receptor antagonists GYKI 52466 and GYKI 53405 on vigilance, behavior and spike-wave discharges in a genetic rat model of absence epilepsy. Brain Res, 2004, 1008, 236-244. (Pubitemid 38624054)
39. Kalia LV, Kalia SK, Salter MW: NMDA receptors in clinical neurology: excitatory times ahead. Lancet Neurol, 2008, 7, 742-755 (Pubitemid 351957932)
40. Kłodzińska A, Bijak M, Chojnacka-Wójcik E, Kroczka B, Swiader M, Czuczwar SJ, Pilc A: Roles of group II metabotropic glutamate receptors in modulation of seizure activity. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol, 2000, 361, 283-288. (Pubitemid 30106340)
41. Leach JP, Sills GJ, Majid A, Butler E, Carswell A, Thompson GG, Brodie MJ: Effects of tiagabine and vigabatrin on GABA uptake into primary cultures of rat cortical astrocytes. Seizure, 1996, 5, 229-234. (Pubitemid 26345847)
42. Lee CY, Fu WM, Chen CC, Su MJ, Liou HH: Lamotrigine inhibits postsynaptic AMPA receptor and glutamate release in the dentate gyrus. Epilepsia, 2008, 49, 888-897.
43. Leppik IE: Zonisamide: chemistry, mechanism of action, and pharmacokinetics. Seizure, 2004, 13, Suppl 1, S5-9, discussion S10.
44. Lerche H, Weber YG, Jurkatt-Rott K, Lehmann-Horn F: Ion channel defects in idiopathic epilepsies. Curr Pharm Des, 2005, 11, 2737-2752. (Pubitemid 41051881)
45. Leśkiewicz M, Lasoń W: The neurochemical mechanisms of temporal lobe epilepsy: an update (Polish). Przegl Lek, 2007, 64, 960-964.
46. Liston HL, Markovitz JS, Devane L: Drug glucuronidation in clinical psychopharmacology. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 2001, 21, 500-515. (Pubitemid 32937433)
47. Löscher W: Basic pharmacology of valproate: a review after 35 years of clinical use for the treatment of epilepsy. CNS Drugs, 2002, 16, 669-694.
48. Löscher W, Köhling R: Functional, metabolic, and synaptic changes after seizures as potential targets for antiepileptic therapy. Epilepsy Behav, 2010, 19, 105-113.
49. Löscher W, Schmidt D: Which animal models should be used in the search for new antiepileptic drugs? A proposal based on experimental and clinical considerations. Epilepsy Res, 1988, 2, 145-181.
50. Łuszczki JJ: Isobolographic analysis of interaction between drugs with nonparallel dose-response relationship curves: a practical application. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmacol, 2007, 375, 105-114.
51. Łuszczki JJ: Third-generation antiepileptic drugs: mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics and interactions. Pharmacol Rep, 2009, 61, 197-216.
52. Łuszczki JJ, Czuczwar SJ: Isobolographic characterization of interactions between vigabatrin and tiagabine in two experimental models of epilepsy. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 2007, 30, 529-538.
53. Łuszczki JJ, Czuczwar SJ: Preclinical profile of combinations of some second-generation antiepileptic drugs: an isobolographic analysis. Epilepsia, 2004, 45, 895-907.
54. Łuszczki JJ, Czuczwar M, Kiś J, Pasztelan M, Krysa J, Czuczwar SJ: Interactions of lamotrigine with topiramate and first generation antiepileptic drugs in the maximal electroshock test in mice: an isobolographic analysis. Epilepsia, 2003, 44, 1003-1013.
55. Łuszczki JJ, Kolacz A, Wojda E, Czuczwar M, Przesmycki K, Czuczwar SJ: Synergistic interaction of gabapentin with tiagabine in the hot-plate test in mice: an isobolographic analysis. Pharmacol Rep, 2009, 61, 459-467.
56. Łuszczki JJ, Ratnaraj N, Patsalos P, Czuczwar SJ: Characterization of the anticonvulsant, behavioral, and pharmacokinetic interaction profiles of stiripentol in combination with clonazepam, ethosuximide, phenobarbital, and valproate using isobolographic analysis. Epilepsia, 2006, 47, 1841-1854.
57. Łuszczki JJ, Ratnaraj N, Patsalos PN, Czuczwar SJ: Isobolographic and behavioral characterizations of interactions between vigabatrin and gabapentin in two experimental models of epilepsy. Eur J Pharmacol, 2008, 595, 13-21.
58. Łuszczki JJ, Wójcik-Ćwikła J, Andres MM, Czuczwar SJ: Pharmacological and behavioral characteristics of interactions between vigabatrin and conventional antiepileptic drugs in pentylenetetrazole- induced seizures in mice: an isobolographic analysis. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2005, 30, 958-973.
59. Łuszczki JJ, Wu JZ, Raszewski G, Czuczwar SJ: Isobolographic characterization of interactions of retigabine with carbamazepine, lamotrigine, and valproate in the mouse maximal electroshock-induced seizure model. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol, 2009, 379, 163-179.
60. Majkowski J, Patsalos PN: Interaction between antiepileptic and non-epileptic drugs. In: Antiepileptic Drugs. Combination Therapy and Interactions. Eds. Majkowski J, Bourgeois B, Patsalos P, Mattson R, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, 139-177.
61. Maljevic S., Wuttke TV, Seebohm G, Lerce H: Kv7 channelopathies. Eur J Physiol, 2010, 460, 277-288.
62. Masuda Y, Karasawa T, Shiraishi Y, Hori M, Yoshida K, Shimizu M: 3-Sulfamoylmethyl-1,2-benzisoxazole, a new type of anticonvulsant drug. Pharmacological profile. Arzneimittelforschung, 1980, 30, 477-483.
63. Mathews GC: The dual roles of GABA in seizures and epilepsy generate more excitement. Epilepsy Curr, 2007, 7, 28-30.
64. Mattson RH: Efficacy and adverse effects of established and new antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia, 1995, 36, Suppl 2, S13-S26.
65. Matute C: Therapeutic Potential of kainate receptors. CNS Neurosci Ther, 2010, 6.
66. McLean MJ, Macdonald RL: Carbamazepine and 10,11-epoxycarbamazepine produce use- and voltage-dependent limitation of rapidly firing action potentials of mouse central neurons in cell culture. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 1986, 238, 727-738. (Pubitemid 16039621)
67. McNamara JO: Pharmacotherapy of the epilepsies In: The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. Eds. Brunton LL, Lazo JS, Parker KL, Goodman and Gilman's 11th edition, McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division, New York, 2006, 501-526.
68. Meldrum BS, Rogawski MA: Molecular targets for antiepileptic drug development. Neurotherapeutics, 2007, 4, 18-61. (Pubitemid 46107329)
69. Miller AA, Wheatley P, Sawyer DA, Baxter MG, Roth B: Pharmacological studies on lamotrigine, a novel potential antiepileptic drug: I. Anticonvulsant profile in mice and rats. Epilepsia, 1986, 27, 483-489.
70. Moldrich RX, Chapman AG, De Sarro G, Meldrum BS: Glutamate metabotropic receptors as targets for drug therapy in epilepsy. Eur J Pharmacol, 2003, 22, 476, 3-16. (Pubitemid 37321352)
71. Mora G, Tapia R: Effects of retigabine on the neurodegeneration and extracellular glutamate changes induced by 4-aminopyridine in rat hippocampus in vivo. Neurochem Res, 2005, 30, 1557-1565. (Pubitemid 41813720)
72. Nasreddine W, Beydoun A, Atweh S, Abou-Khalil B: Emerging drugs for partial onset seizures. Expert Opin Emerging Drugs, 2010, 15, 415-431.
73. Parker AC, Pritchard B, Preston T, Choonara I: Induction of CYP1A2 activity by carbamazepine in children using the caffeine breath test. Br J Clin Pharmacol, 1998, 45, 176-178.
74. Patsalos PN: Pharmacokinetic principles and mechanisms of drug interactions. In: Antiepileptic Drugs. Combination Therapy and Interactions. Eds. Majkowski J, Bourgeois B, Patsalos P, Mattson R, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, 47-56.
75. Patsalos PN, Lascelles PT: Effect of sodium valproate on plasma protein binding of diphenylhydantoin. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat, 1977, 40, 570-574. (Pubitemid 8192048)
76. Pellock JM, Faught E, Leppik IE, Shinnar S, Zupanc ML: Felbamate: consensus of current clinical experience. Epilepsy Res, 2006, 71, 89-101. (Pubitemid 44416200)
77. Pennell PB, Ogaily MS, Macdonald RL: Aplastic anemia in a patient receiving felbamate for complex partial seizures. Neurology, 1995, 45, 456-460.
78. Perucca E: The clinical pharmacology and therapeutic use of the new antiepileptic drugs. Fund Clin Pharmacol, 2001, 15, 405-407.
79. Plosker GL, Scott LJ: Retigabine: in partial seizures. CNS Drugs, 2006, 20, 601-608, discussion 609-610.
80. Poolos NP, Migliore M, Johnston D: Pharmacological upregulation of h-channels reduces the excitability of pyramidal neuron dendrites. Nat Neurosci, 2002, 5, 767-774. (Pubitemid 34827595)
81. Porter RJ, Partiot A, Sachdeo R, Nohria V, Alves WM: 205 Study Group: Randomized, multicenter, dose-ranging trial of retigabine for partial-onset seizures. Neurology, 2007, 68, 1197-1204. (Pubitemid 46608467)
82. Putnam TJ, Merritt HH: Experimental determination of the anticonvulsant properties of some phenyl derivatives. Science, 1937, 85, 525-526.
83. Rambeck B, May TW: Interactions between antiepileptic drugs. In: Antiepileptic Drugs. Combination Therapy and Interactions. Eds. Majkowski J, Bourgeois B, Patsalos P, Mattson R, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, 111-138.
84. Reddy DS: Clinical pharmacokinetic interactions between antiepileptic drugs and hormonal contraceptives. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol, 2010, 3, 183-192.
85. Reinikainen KJ, Keränen T, Halonen T, Komulainen H, Riekkinen PJ: Comparison of oxcarbazepine and carbamazepine: A double-blind study. Epilepsy Res, 1987, 1, 284-289. (Pubitemid 17162364)
86. Reiss WG, Oles KS: Acetazolamide in the treatment of seizures. Ann Pharmacother, 1996, 30, 514-519. (Pubitemid 26139249)
87. Rendic S, Di Carlo FJ: Human cytochrome P450 enzymes: a status report summarizing their reactions, substrates, inducers, and inhibitors. Drug Metab Rev, 1997, 29, 413-580. (Pubitemid 27293618)
88. Rigo JM, Hans G, Nguyen L, Rocher V, Belachew S: The anti-epileptic drug levetiracetam reverses the inhibition by negative allosteric modulators of neuronal GABA- and glycine-gated currents. Br J Pharmacol, 2002, 136, 659-672. (Pubitemid 34785708)
89. Riss J, Cloyd J, Gates J, Collins S: Benzodiazepines in epilepsy: pharmacology and pharmacokinetics. Acta Neurol Scand, 2008, 118, 69-86.
90. Rogawski M: Diverse mechanisms of antiepileptic drugs in the development pipeline. Epilepsy Res, 2006, 69, 273-294.
91. Rogawski MA, Porter RJ: Antiepileptic drugs: Pharmacological mechanisms and clinical efficacy with consideration of promising developmental stage compounds. Pharmacol Rev, 1990, 42, 223-286. (Pubitemid 20291784)
92. Rostock A, Tober C, Rundfeldt C, Bartsch R, Engel J, Polymeropoulos EE, Kutscher B et al.: D-23129: a new anticonvulsant with a broad spectrum activity in animal models of epileptic seizures. Epilepsy Res, 1996, 23, 211-223. (Pubitemid 26176549)
93. Sabers A, Gram L: Newer anticonvulsants: Comparative review of drug interactions adverse effects. Drugs, 2000, 60, 23-33. (Pubitemid 30598818)
94. Schachter SC: A review of the antiepileptic drug tiagabine. Clin Neuropharmacol, 1999, 22, 312-317.
95. Schauf CL: Zonisamide enhances slow sodium inactivation in Myxicola. Brain Res, 1987, 9, 413, 185-188.
96. Scheyer RD: Valproic acid: drug interactions. In: Antiepileptic Drugs. Ed. Levy RH, Mattson RH, Meldrum BS, Perucca E, Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2002, 801-807.
97. Schulze-Bonhage A: Zonisamide in the treatment of epilepsy. Expert Opin Pharmacother, 2010, 11, 115-126.
98. Schumacher TB, Beck H, Steinhäuser C, Schramm J, Elger CE: Effects of phenytoin, carbamazepine, and gabapentin on calcium channels in hippocampal granule cells from patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia, 1998, 39, 355-363. (Pubitemid 28158877)
99. Shank RP, Gardocki JF, Vaught JL, Davis CB, Schupsky JJ, Raffa RB, Dodgson SJ et al.: Topiramate: preclinical evaluation of structurally novel anticonvulsant. Epilepsia, 1994, 35, 450-460. (Pubitemid 24138837)
100. Sills GJ: Combining mechanisms: how can experimental studies inform clinical practice? The Conference Antiepileptic drug therapy: does mechanism of action matter? Radisson Edwardian Heathrow Hotel, London, UK, Monday 7 June 2010.
101. Sills GJ: The mechanisms of action of gabapentin and pregabalin. Curr Opin Pharmacol, 2006, 6, 108-113.
102. Singh R, Gardner RJ, Crossland KM, Sheffer IE, Berkovic SF: Chromosomal abnormalities and epilepsy: a review for clinicians and gene hunters. Epilepsia, 2002, 43, 127-140. (Pubitemid 34225992)
103. Spina E, Perucca E, Levy R: Predictability of metabolic antiepileptic drug interactions. In: Antiepileptic Drugs. Combination Therapy and Interactions. Eds. Majkowski J, Bourgeois B, Patsalos P, Mattson R, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, 57-92.
104. Stafstrom CE: Mechanisms of action of antiepileptic drugs: the search for synergy. Curr Opin Neurol, 2010, 23, 157-163.
105. Stephen LJ, Brodie MJ: Seizure freedom with more than one antiepileptic drug. Seizure, 2002, 11, 349-351. (Pubitemid 35154146)
106. Stöhr T, Kupferberg HJ, Stables JP, Choi D, Harris RH, Kohn H, Walton N, White HS: Lacosamide, a novel anti-convulsant drug, shows efficacy with a wide safety margin in rodent models for epilepsy. Epilepsy Res, 2007, 74, 147-154. (Pubitemid 46654745)
107. Suzuki S, Kawakami K, Nishimura S, Watanabe Y, Yagi K, Seino M, Miyamoto K: Zonisamide blocks T-type calcium channel in cultured neurons of rat cerebral cortex. Epilepsy Res, 1992, 12, 21-27.
108. Swinyard EA, Sofia RD, Kupferberg HJ: Comparative anticonvulsant activity and neurotoxicity of felbamate and four prototype antiepileptic drugs in mice and rats. Epilepsia, 1986, 27, 27-34. (Pubitemid 16165746)
109. Tallarida RJ: An overview of drug combination analysis with isobolograms. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 2007, 113, 197-209.
110. Taylor CP, Gee NS, Su TZ, Kocsis JD, Welty DF, Brown JP, Dooley DJ et al.: A summary of mechanistic hypothesis of gabapentin pharmacology. Epilepsy Res, 1998, 29, 233-249. (Pubitemid 28137601)
111. Temperini C, Innocenti A, Mastrolorenzo A, Scozzafava A, Supuran CT: Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Interaction of the antiepileptic drug sulthiame with twelve mammalian isoforms: kinetic and X-ray crystallographic studies. Bioorg Med Chem Lett, 2007, 17, 4866-4872.
112. Thiry A, Dogné JM, Supuran CT, Masereel B: Anticonvulsant sulfonamides/sulfamates/sulfamides with carbonic anhydrase inhibitory activity: drug design and mechanism of action. Curr Pharm Des, 2008, 14, 661-671. (Pubitemid 351736446)
113. Tomson T: Drug selection for the newly diagnosed patient: when is a new generation antiepileptic drug indicated? J Neurol, 2004, 251, 1043-1049.
114. Trojnar MP, Kimber-Trojnar Ż, Trojnar MK, Czuczwar SJ: Areview of experimental data on efficacy of antiepileptic drug combinations in seizure models - an isobolographic analysis. Epileptologia, 2006, 14, 301-311.
115. Tunnicliff G: Basis of the antiseizure action of phenytoin. Gen Pharmacol, 1996, 27, 1091-1097.
116. Twyman RE, Rogers CJ, Macdonald RL: Differential regulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor channels by diazepam and phenobarbital. Ann Neurol, 1989, 25, 213-220. (Pubitemid 19085510)
117. Walker MC, Sander JW: New antiepileptic drugs. Expert Opin Invest Drugs, 1999, 10, 1497-1510.
118. Wauquier A, Zhou S: Topiramate: a potent anticonvulsant in the amygdala-kindled rat. Epilepsy Res, 1996, 24, 73-77. (Pubitemid 26191614)
119. White HS, Smith MD, Wilcox KS: Mechanism of action of antiepileptic drugs. Int Rev Neurobiol, 2007, 81, 85-110.
120. Wickenden AD: Potassium channels as anti-epileptic drug targets. Neuropharmacology, 2002, 43, 1055-1060.
121. Willmore LJ: Clinical pharmacology of new antiepileptic drugs. Neurology, 2000, 55, 17-24.
122. Wolff H, Castle NA, Pardo LA: Voltage-gated potassium channels as therapeutic drug targets. Nat Rev Drug Discov, 2009, 8, 982-1001.
123. Wuttke TV, Lerche H: Novel anticonvulsant drugs targeting voltage-dependent ion channels. Expert Opin Investig Drugs, 2006, 15, 1167-1177. (Pubitemid 44608257)
124. Wuttke TV, Seebohm G, Bail S, Maljevic S, Lerche H: The new anticonvulsant retigabine favors voltage-dependent opening of the Kv7.2 (KCNQ2) channel by binding to its activation gate. Mol Pharmacol, 2005, 67, 1009-1017. (Pubitemid 40410403)
125. www.clinicaltrials.gov
126. Zaccara G, Gangemi PF, Bendoni L, Menge GP, Schwabe S, Monza GC: Influence of single and repeated doses of oxcarbazepine on the pharmacokinetic profile of felodipine. Ther Drug Monit, 1993, 15, 39-42. (Pubitemid 23040314)